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STATF!  NORMAL  >^CHOOL 

JLOS  AlNGELEiS,  UaLIFOKNIA 


/%uti^ 


.^t^CLOLA^ 


A  New  English  Grammar 


BY 

J.  B.  WISELY,  A.  M., 

DEPARTMENT  OF  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION, 
INDIANA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


t  ^   -^'^ 


"  There  is  haraii,'  anythii-g  more  interesting  than  to  see  how  the  laws  of 
grammar,  which  seem  it  first  sight  so  hard  and  arbitrary,  are  simply  the 
laws  of  the  expression  of  logical  relations  in  concrete  form." 

—C.  C,  EVERETT. 


TERRE  HAUTE,  IND.: 

THE  INLAND  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 

1898. 


CO] 

J. 


— BECKTOLD— 

PRINTING  AND  BOOK  MFG.  CO. 
ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 


\\  w 


PREFACE. 


In  attempting  to  write  a  text-book  on  grammar  for  the  use 
of  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils  in  our  public  schools,  the 
author  has  been  confronted  by  two  problems : 

1.     The   course  of  study  in  our  com- 

Two  Problems.  u     i    ■  j  j    a  iu  ^ 

mon  schools  is  so  expanded  at  the  present 

time,  so  many  new  subjects  have  been  introduced,  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  treat  any  one  of  them  exhaustively.  It  be- 
comes a  question,  then,  as  to  what  should  be  taught  and  what 
should  be  left  unlearned  concerning  these  subjects. 

This  book  tries  to  present  those  topics  which  are  vital  in 
the  organization  of  the  subject  of  grammar  as  set  forth  in 
the  introduction.  All  phases  of  historical  grammar  have 
been  purposely  omitted,  because  that  view  is  not  necessary 
in  the  organization  of  the  subject,  and  it  is  thought  thatthe 
child,  at  this  age,  has  not  a  sufficient  basis  for  such  a  discus- 
sion of  the  facts  of  grammar. 

2.  The  author's  somewhat  extended  experience  in  teach- 
ing the  subject  in  public  and  Normal  schools,  and  his  super- 
vision of  others  in  the  work,  has  shown  him  how  very  easy 
it  is  to  make  the  study  of  grammar  a  bugbear,  a  deadening 
verbal  memory  grind  to  children.  It  is  thought  that  this  is 
not  necessary  but  that  the  subject  of  grammar  may  be  made 
as  interesting  to  the  pupil  as  the  study  of  botany,  and  that 
it  may  be  studied  in  much  the  same  way. 


4  A  New  English  Grammak. 

We  used  to  study  botany,  physics,  cliem- 
Sturtv  ^^^^'y>  from  the  text-book,  much  in  the  same 

way  as  that  in  which  we  have  been  studying 
grammar.  Bacon,  Agassiz,  and  others  showed  us  the  error 
of  our  way.  Now  in  the  subject  of  botany,  we  study  plants, 
using  the  text  as  an  aid,  and  in  the  ^  teaching  of  physics, 
chemistry,  etc.,  the  laboratory  is  considered  an  essential.  If 
the  teacher  of  science  to-day  had  to  give  up  his  text-book  or 
his  laboratory,  he  would,  without  hesitation,  throw  downthe 
text. 

.It  is  thought  that  this  same  spirit  of  in- 
Invesfe-  t'on  ^estigation,  this  same  personal  examination 
of  the  facts  of  the  subject  on  the  part  of 
each  and  every  pupil,  ought  to  be  introduced  into  the  study 
of  grammar;  and  that  the  great  variety  of  sentences  ought 
to  stand  before  the  student  of  grammar,  for  his  scrutiny  and 
examination,  just  as  the  great  variety  of  plants  is  made  to 
appear  to  him  by  the  teacher  of  botany. 

The  purpose  of  the  author  in  this  book 
^"^  '  ®*  has  been,  then,  to  present  suitable  sentences 
and  to  ask  such  questions  upon  them  as  will  lead  the  pupil, 
by  the  aid  of  the  teacher,  to  construct  the  science  of  gram- 
mar for  himself.  To  this  end  only  such  definitions,  state- 
ments of  facts,  and  explanations,  as  have  been  thought  nec- 
essary to  help  the  teacher  in  leading  the  child  to  think  his 
way  through  the  subject,  have  been  inserted. 

Definitions         '^^^®   definitions   and  principles  thus  in- 
ancl  serted  are  for  the  teacher  and  not  for  the  pu- 

Principles.  pil.  There  is  no  need  of  committing  any 
law  or  principle  of  language  from  a  text-book.  All  the 
facts  of  the  subject  of  grammar  are  embodied  in  the  sen- 
tence, and  the  pupil  may  study  them  directly,  ^rs^  hand,  just 


Preface.  5 

as  he  studies  the  flower  in  botany  or  the  rock  in  geology,  and 
if  he  should  forget  the  rule,  he  has  only  to  examine  a  few 
sentences  and  restate  it  for  himself.  Nor  is  the  teacher  asked 
to  ACCEPT  a  single  statement  in  this  book.  Grammar  is  not  a^iat- 
ter  of  authority;  it  is  a  thoughtTsubject,  and  if  the  teacher's 
thought  on  the  materials  here  presented  should  lead  her  to  a 
different  conclusion  from  that  stated  in  a  definition,  she 
should  not  hesitate  to  change  the  definition. 

Subject  There  is  no  need  to  tell  the  pupil  that  the 

not  flower  has  so  many  petals  and  so  many  se- 

Arbitrary.  pals,  or  to  send  him  to  a  book  to  read  it,  says 
the  botanist;  he  can  discover  these  facts  for  himself.  Can 
he  not  also  discover  t  he  uses  of  the  substantive  clause?  If  he 
be  able  to  see  that  the  fish  has  so  many  spines  in  the  dorsal 
fin,  why  can  he  not  see  that  the  noun  has  gender,  person,  num- 
ber, and  case? 

Resemblance       There  is  a  close  resemblance  between  the 
Between       method  of   procedure  here  in  the  language 
Grammar  and  studies   and  that  followed  in  the  study  of 
the  Sciences,  natural   sciences.     True,   no   special   apart- 
ment, fitted  up  with  tables,  cases  of  instruments,  or  bottles  of 
reagents,  as  in  the  sciences,  is  necessary;   the  real  unit  of 
the  subject,  the  sentence,  is  the  material  upon  which  we 
work;  the  instruments  are  the  minds  of  the  pupils,  con- 
stantly at  hand,  and  never  in  the  way. 

The  superiority  of  this  way  of  working  in  the  language 
studies  over  its  recognized  value  in  the  natural  sciences,  will 
at  once  appear,  for  the  work  can  be  carried  on  conveniently 
without  so  many  appliances,  and  without  the  di.sagreeable 
associations  which  sometimes  enter  into  such  operations  in 
the  scientific  laboratory:  ' 


6  A  New  English  Grammar. 

The  work  as  presented  in  this  text,  then, 

of  *theWork    ^^  ^^^^'^  ^P°^  ^^®  following  thoughts: 

1.  That  the  sentence  as  determined  by  the 
thought  which  it  expresses,  is  the  unit  and  subject  of  study  in 
grammar. 

2.  That  there  should  be  a  two-fold  purpose  in  the  mind 
of  the  teacher  who  teaches  it;  viz.,  to  make  the  pupils  famil- 
iar with  the  principles  which  underlie  correct  sentence  con- 
struction, and  to  give  them  skill  in  the  use  of  the  sentence  as 
an  instrument  in  expressing  their  thought. 

The  Labora-       3.     That   the  method   which   should  be 
tory  Method,   pursued  in  studying  the  subject  should  be 

inductive,  and  might  appropriately  be  called  the  laboratory 

method. 

Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  Nov.  29,  1895. 


CONTENTS. 


Pages. 

I.     Preface 3-6 

II.    Introduction 9-38 

III.    Part  I 39-180 

1.  The  First  Circle 39-45 

a.  The  Subject  as  a  Whole 39-41 

b.  The  Sentence  as  a  Whole 41-45 

2.  The  Second  Circle 45-55 

a.  Classes  of  Sentences  on  Basis  of  Meaning  or  Ef- 

fect Produced  Upon  the  Mind 45-53 

b.  Classes  of  Sentences  on  Basis  of  Form  as  Deter- 

mined by  the  Form  of  the  Thought 53-55 

3.  The  Third  Circle 55-106 

a.  Thought  Material 55-60 

b.  Classesof  Words 61-62 

c.  Modifiers 63-  65 

d.  Kinds  of  Predicates 66-  67 

e.  Uses  of  Words •  67-106 

(1).    In  Simple  Sentence 67-74 

(2).    In  Compound  Sentence 75-  85 

(3).    In  Complex  Sentence 85-106 

/.    Combinations  of   Words 71-106 

(1).     The  Phrase 71-74 

(2).    The  Clause 75-lOQ 


8  A  New  English  Grammar. 

4.    "^he  Fourth  Circle      106-180 

cr.    Parts  of  Speech 106-180 

(1).    The  Noun 106-118 

(2).    The  Pronoun 119-124 

(3).    The  Adjective 125-131 

(4).     The  Verb 131-165 

(5).     The  Adverb ' 165-169 

(6).     The  Infinitive 169-172 

-(7).    The  Participle 172-175 

(8).     The  Preposition 175-178 

(9).    The  Conjunction .178-180 

IV.     Partll 181_227 

1.  Introduction 183-186 

2.  Selections 184r-227 

a.  The  Voyage    r  .    .    . 187-194 

b.  Scheme  for  the  Study'of  a  Selection 194-195 

c.  The  Widow  and  Her  Son 196-204 

d.  The  Blind  Preacher 204-207 

e.  The  Four  Crafts-Men 208-212 

/.     A  Tale  of  Two  Brothers 213-215 

g.    The  Chameleon 215-216 

h.     Await  the  Issue 217-219 

V.     Appendix  A 220-222 

VI.     Index     .       223-227 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SUBJECT. 

_  English  grammar  is  that  language  study  which  has  for  its 
subject-matter  the  sentence.     It  is  both  a  science  and  an  art. 

As  a  science,  it  deals  with  the  fundamentals 

The  Science.   ^^  sentence  structure.     It  makes  known  to 

the  student  the  laws  and  principles  which  underlie  sentence 

construction.     As  an  art,  it  aims  to  enable  the  student  to 

acquire  a  skillful  use  of  the  sentence  as  an 

e  Art.       instrument  in  expressing  his  thought. 

These  two  phases  of  the  subject  are  not  inseparable.  One 
may  understand  the  science  of  grammar  and  not  be  able  to 
use  good  English  in  conversation,  and  one  may  be  very  skill- 
ful in  the  use  of  language  and  at  the  same  time  know  little 
or  nothing  about  the  laws  and  principles  which  govern  cor- 
rect sentence  construction.  If  one  had  been  brought  up  in 
a  family  where  he  had  always  heard  good  English,  if  his 
playmates  and  those  with  whom  he  had  associated  had  al- 
ways used  good  English,  then  his  English  would  certainly  be 
pure ;  but  he  would  know  nothing  of  the  rules  of  grammar. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  have  all  known  persons  who  could  re- 
peat rule  after  rule  of  grammar  and  yet  could  not  speak  cor- 
rectly. 

Mastery  of         As  a  mastery  of  the  art  side  of  grammar 

the  Art.        is   an    accomplishment   which  comes  only 

through  long  and  careful  practice,  it  is  essential  that  the 


10  A  New  English  Grammar. 

teacher  devote  much  time  to  this  side  of  the  child's  educa- 
tion in  English.  His  language  will  need  the  careful  super- 
vision of  his  teacher  in  all  his  work,  and  the  pupil,  himself, 
should  be  made  to  feel  that  he  must  keep  a  constant  watch 
over  his  language  in  order  to  become  proficient  and  skillful 
in  its  use.  Eternal  vigilance  on  the  part  of  both  teacher  and 
pupil,  is  the  price  of  pure  English.  Thescience  of  grammar 
will  help,  to  some  extent,  to  give  the  pupil  the  art;  it  will 
help  him  to  judge  when  his  sentences  are  correct,  and  to  dis- 
cover his  own  mistakes,  but  the  use  of  good  English  must  be 
acquired  largely  by  practice. 

Value  of  Pur-      In  teaching  any  subject,  the  teacher  should 
pose.  constantly  bear  in  mind  the  end  to  be  at- 

tained. The  teacher  who  sees  clearly  the  end  from  the  be- 
ginning will  be  able,  for  the  most  part,  to  select  such  means 
and  devices  as  will  bring  about  or  accomplish  this  end.  She 
will  waste  no  time  on  side  issues  or  irrelevant  matter,  because 
the  purpose  which  she  sees  in  the  work  draws  her  constantly 
toward  it  and  excludes  everything  which  does  not  contribute 
to  that  end. 

If  we  say  that  the  end  of  education  is 

Contribution       moral  character,  then  the  chief  value  of 

of  the  Subject     ^^^^  ^^^.    ^^  grammar  lies  in  that  element 

to  Character.  ,  .  ,    .,         ,  ^^    ^      ^  it,        i. 

which  it  contributes  to  moral  character. 

And  does  the  study  of  grammar  really  contribute  anything 

to  moral  character?     I  think  so. 

It  Deals  With  In  the  study  of  grammar,  the  pupil's 

Mind.  attention  is  directed  inward  for  the  first 

time.     It  is  the  only  subject  in  the  common  school  course 

which  requires  the  pupil  to  consider  his  mental  acts  as  such. 


Intboduction.  11 

Here  he  stops  to  consider  for  the  first  time  the  nature  of  that 
for  which  the  word,  the  phrase,  the  clause,  the  sentence 
stands.  He  deals  primarily  with  the  forms  of  thought,  pure 
thought,  of  course  in  a  very  elementary  way.  This  means 
that  he  gets,  in  a  limited  way,  a  knowledge  of  the  human 
mind;  he  sees,  to  some  extent,  the  delicate  working,  the  mar- 
velous powers  of  the  human  soul.  Here  he  finds  an  oppor- 
tunity for  making  distinctions  and  doing  a  kind  of  thinking 
similar  to  that  which  he  will  do  in  psychology  and  logic. 
He  does  closer  and  stronger  thinking  than  that  required  in 
arithmetic  or  physiology,  because  the  subject-matter  upon 
which  he  is  working  is  more  subtile.  This  work  which  he 
does  here,  gives  him  an  element  of  moral  character  which  he 
could  not  get  from  the  study  of  any  other  subject;  viz., 
acute  intellectual  judgment,  without  which  there  could  be 
no  moral  judgment  and  hence  no  moral  character,  for  if  the 
element  of  moral  judgment  be  left  out  of  character,  if  the 
individual  be  unable  to  make  fine  distinctions  in  questions 
of  right  and  wrong,  strong  moral  character  is  impossible. 

But  while  this  is  the  great  value  of  the 
More   Tmmedi-     study  of  grammar,  it  is  not  the  immediate 

^th^Sub^^ect"*     end  which  the  teacher  keeps  before  her 

day  by  day.  The  result  stated  above  is 
obtained  only  by  keeping  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  sentence 
is  the  unit  or  subject-matter  of  grammar,  and  that  all  work 
in  the  subject  is:  (1).  To  give  pupils  a  knowledge  of  its 
structure — the  laws  and  principles  which  underlie  its  correct 
construction,  or  the  science  of  the  English  sentence.  (2). 
To  give  the  pupils  such  a  mastery  of  the  sentence  as  an  in- 
strument in  expressing  thought  as  will  enable  them  to  use 
it  correctly — the  art  of  the  English  sentence. 


12  A  New  English  Grammab. 

In  order  to  accomplish  these  results,  the 
Characteristics     teacher  should  bear  in  mind  that :     (1). 
Subject  Grammar  is  a  subject  in  and  of  itself, 

separate  and  apart  from  all  text-books  on 
the  subject,  and  if  all  the  text-books  on  the  subject  were 
swept  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  we  should  still  have  the 
subject  of  grammar.  It  has  a  central  or  organizing  idea 
which  binds  together  the  facts  of  the  subject  and  indicates 
their  relations  to  all  other  facts  of  knowledge.  (2).  It  is  a 
logical  or  thought  subject.  It  is  not  arbitrary  and  mechani- 
cal but  reasonable.  (3).  It  is  analytic  and  inductive  and 
not  synthetic  and  deductive,  and  should  be  taught  according 
to  what  might  appropriately  be  called  the  laboratory  method, 
as  explained  in  the  preface.  The  purpose  of  the  discussion 
that  follows  is  to  make  these  three  propositions  clear  to  the 
teacher  and  thus  enable  her  to  get  above  the  common  plane 
of  ordinary  text-book  grammar  work. 

GRAMMAR  A  SUBJECT  IN  ITSELF. 

There  is  a  body  of  facts  which  we  call  grammar.     May 
these  facts  be  known  scientifically,  just  as  one  would  learn 
the  facts  of  botany,  or  must  the  student  be  required  to  com- 
mit them'  from  a  text?     This  group  of  facts  is  related  to 
other  groups  of  facts.     Grammar  is  related 
other  ^^  ^^®  word  studies  of  the  language  group. 

Subjects.  ^^  i^  ^^^^  ^  "^^^  relative  of  reading,  compo- 
sition and  rhetoric,  and  literature — those 
language  studies  which  have  discourse  for  their  subject- 
matter.  Grammar  is  the  handmaid  of  logic.  All  its  forms 
are  determined  by  and  adapted  to  the  thought  they  express. 
The  relations  which  are  found  in  the  subject  are  logical  rela- 
tions and  the  true  study  of  these  facts  is  the  study  of  the 


Intkoduction.  13 

logic  of  the  English  sentence.     Dr.  C.  C.  Everett,  of  Harvard 
University,  in  his  "Science  of  Thought,"  says: 

^^  Certainly,  while  logic  derives  such  help  from  grammar,  the  re- 
verse should  he  done,  and  our  grammars  placed  upon  a  direct  logi- 
cal footing  P 

When  the  student  studies  grammar  in  the  light  of  the 
relations  set  forth  above,  when  he  sees  it  as  based  upon  and 
growing  out  of  logic,  as  a  practical  illustration  of  psychology, 
as  conditioned  by  the  word  studies,  and  as  preparing  for  and 

aiding  in  a  mastery  of  the  discourse  studies, 

Constructive  j^g  jg  studying  the  subject  "constructively," 

„    "  "^  **         as  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  says.    Heretofore  he  has 

learned  a  great  many  of  the  facts  of  orthog- 
raphy, orthoepy,  grammar,  reading,  composition,  rhetoric, 
and  literature,  but  these  are  somewhat  fused  together  in  his 
mind  and  mixed,  to  some  extent,  with  the  facts  of  history, 
geography,  and  all  other  subjects  which  he  has  studied.  Now 
he  sees  the  language  group  clearly  set  off  from  all  other 
studies,  he  sees  the  place  of  each  study  in  this  group,  and  he 
sees  all  of  them  in  the  light  of  the  studies  upon  which  they  are 
based. 

But  while  the  student  is  coming  into  a 
Facts  of       complete   comprehension    of  the    relations 
rammar      g^^^gfj  above,    he  learns    that  the  facts  of 
grammar  have  certain  relations  to  one  an- 
other and  to  the  subject  as  a  whole. 

In  the  consideration  of  such  a  common  object  as  the  table, 
he  has  noticed  that  it  is  made  up  of  parts,  each  one  holding 
a  certain  relation  to  every  other  one  and  all  together  forming 
the  whole.  Without  any  one  of  these  parts  the  whole  would 
not  be  complete.     In  this  case,  he  sees  a  common  idea,  the 


14  A  New  E^fGLISH  Grammar. 

idea  of  design  or  purpose,  embodied  in  every  part  of  the 
table  and  binding  all  the  parts  together  into  the  whole.  The 
table  is  to  write  upon  and  at  the  same  time  is  to  be  orna- 
mental, and  every  part  and  attribute  of  it,  legs,  sides,  top, 
color,  etc.,  embodies  the  central  idea  of  the  table.  Why  was 
the  table  not  painted  red  ?  Why  are  the  legs  all  the  same 
length?  Why  is  this  bit  of  carving  on  the  side?  Why  is 
it  made  of  hard  wood?  To  answer  any  of  these  questions 
is  to  refer  it  to  the  central  idea  in  the  table. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  student  might  take  another 
view  of  the  table.  He  might  see  it  as  a  number  of  isolated 
parts,  existing  in  space — a  mere  heap  of  material.  What  is 
the  difference  between  this  view  and  the  first  one?  The 
parts  are  all  in  the  second  view.  The  legs,  tops,  sidjes,  etc., 
every  bit  of  carving,  all  the  attributes  of  the  parts,  color, 
form,  etc.,  all  materials  are  present.  But  the  view  of  the 
table  is  not  the  same  as  the  first,  because  these  parts  are  not 
seen  in  their  relations.  They  are  not  bound  into  a  whole  by 
a  unifying  idea. 

Two  Views  of  It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  dis- 

Any  Subject.  cussion  that  there  were  two  phases  or 
sides  in  this  first  view  of  the  table;  viz.,  the  part  phase  or 
fact  phase;  and  the  relation  phase  or  unifying  idea. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  relations  existing  among  the  facts 
of  grammar  are  similar  to  the  relations  existing  among  the 
parts  of  the  table  with  one  exception.  The  relations  exist- 
ing among  the  parts  of  the  table  are  mechanical  relations, 
and  the  whole  is  a  mechanical  whole,  while  the  relations  ex- 
isting among  the  facts  of  grammar  are  vital,  and  the  subject 
may  be  shown  to  be  a  vital  unity. 


Introduction.  15 

Two  Points  Grammar,  then,  may  be  viewed  from  these 
of  View.  two  points  of  view  :  (1).  The  student  may 
consider  the  fact  side,  sentences  in  their  great  variety  of  form 
and  many  shades  of  meaning,  together  with  the  words  which 
compose  these  sentences  in  their  various  uses  in  the  sen- 
tences. These  form  the  subject-matter  of  grammar,  upon 
which  the  mind  of  the  student  is  to  be  exercised.  (2).  The 
student  may  consider  the  relation  phase  of  the  subject.  This 
is  the  central  idea,  which  is  found  in  some  measure  embodied 
in  all  the  facts  of  the  subject,  and  which  binds  them  all  to- 
gether. 

The  two  points  just  stated  are  not  two  different  subjects. 
They  are  the  same  thing  viewed  from  two  points  of  view; 
it  takes  both  to  form  the  science  of  grammar ;  and  any  knowl- 
edge which  leaves  out  either  phase  of  the  subject  could  not 
be  said  to  be  a  scientific  knowledge  of  grammar. 

Science,  it  has  often  been  said,  is  organ- 

What  is  it  to       J2ed  knowledge  or  facts  reduced  to  a  sys- 
„    ,  .     4-  G  •      ,      t^m.     To  know  a  thing  scientifically  is  to 
tifically?  know  it  in  its  relations.     To  know  any 

subject  scientifically,  is  to  know  the  rela- 
tions which  exist  among  the  facts  of  that  subject;  to  see  the 
relation  of  each  fact  to  the  other  and  to  the  whole  through 
or  by  means  of  the  fundamental  idea  in  the  subject;  and  to 
pee  the  relations  of  the  subject  as  a  whole  to  other  subjects 
of  study. 

This  view  of  the  subject  cannot  be  gained  by  committing 
rules  and  definitions  from  a  text-book  on  grammar,  however 
good  the  rules  and  definitions  may  be.  The  student's  mind 
must  come  in  contact  with  the  real  unit  of  the  subject,  if  he 
is  to  see  relations.  In  short,  the  subject  of  grammar  must 
be  viewed  from  the  two  points  of  view  stated  above  in  "(1)" 


16  A  New  English  Grammar.  * 

and  "(2)":  the  facts  and  the  central  or  relating  idea.  When 
one  sees  the  subject  in  this  way,  he  may  be  said  to  have  an 
organized  knowledge  of  grammar.  He  sees  the  subject  of 
grammar  as  Paul  saw  the  church  when  he  said,  "  So  we  be- 
ing many  are  one  body  in  Christ,  and  every  one  members 
one  of  another." 

The  sentence  cannot  say  to  the  subject,  "I  have  no  need 
of  thee;"  nor  the  adverb  to  the  verb,  "I  have  no  need  of 
you;"  nor  can  grammar  say  to  the  most  insignificant  fact  in 
it,  "I  have  no  need  of  you."  For  this  body  of  facts  which 
belong  to  grammar,  being  many,  are  at  the  same  time  one, 
by  reason  of  a  common  idea  which  is  found  in  all  of  them, 
and  every  one  members  one  of  another. 

Subject-  It  has  been  said  that  sentences  in  their 

Matter.  ,  manifold  variety  of  form  and  many  shades 
of  meaning,  together  with  the  multitude  of  facts  concerning 
them,  which  the  student  must  know  in  order  to  understand 
how  thoughts  are  expressed  in  sentences,  form  the  subject- 
matter  of  grammar.  The  student  is  to  think  this  vast  array 
of  facts  into  an  organized  whole  by  means  of  what  has  been 
called  the  "relation  phase,"  or  "unifying  idea."  This  uni- 
fying idea  or  central  principle  of  the  subject  of  grammar 
must  be  a  general  truth,  because  every  fact  in  the  subject 
must  partake  of  its  nature.  It  must  be  a  primary  truth,  be- 
cause every  fact  in  the  subject  is  to  be  built  into  it  and  con- 
nected with  it.  It  must  be  a  determining  idea  or  relating 
truth,  because,  by  means  of  it,  all  the  facts  of  grammar  are 
to  be  logically  arranged  or  organized. 

The  only  use  of  a,  sentence  is  to  express  a 
thought.      How  does  the  sentence  express 
thought?     The  mowing  machine  expresses  thought.     By  ob- 
serving its  parts  and  how  they  all  cooperate  to  do  the  work 


Introduction.  17 

of  the  machine,  one  can  see  design  in  it  and  adaptation  of 
means  to  end.  He  becomes  aware  of  the  fact  that  all  this 
existed  in  the  mind  of  the  inventor  before  it  was  put  into 
this  form.  The  mower  is  simply  the  thought  of  the  designer 
objectified,  and  the  machine  expresses  his  thought. 

Nature  of  The  sentence  does  not  express  thought  in 
Judgment,  the  way  indicated  above.  A  judgment  or 
thought  is  a  mental  act  in  which  the  mind  asserts  a  re- 
lation between  ideas.  There  are  three  elements  in  every  such 
judgment:  (1).  The  idea  about  which  the  mind  asserts 
something,  which  may  be  called  the  thought  subject.  (2). 
The  idea  which  the  mind  thinks  with  the  first  idea  and  which 
it  affirms  or  denies  of  it.  This  may  be  called  the  thought 
predicate.  (3).  The  relation  which  the  mind  asserts  between 
these  ideas,  which  is  always  one  of  agreement  or  disagreement 
and  which  may  be  termed  the  thought  relation.  I  have  in 
mind  the  idea,  cloud,  and  the  idea,  fleecy,  but  these  do  not 
form  a  judgment.  I  must  see  a  relation  between  the  two. 
My  mind  must  think  the  two  ideas  into  a  unity  in  which  I 
see  fleecy  as  belonging  to  or  forming  one  of  the  attributes  of 
cloud.  In  this  way,  my  mind  forms  the  judgment  or  thought 
expressed  by  the  sentence.  The  cloud  is  fleecy.  It  is  this  triple 
unity  which  the  sentence  expresses,  and  in  order  to  express 
it,  the  sentence  must  take  on  the  trijjle  form  of  the  thought. 

Three  Parts  A  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  thought 
of  Sentence,  or  judgment  in  words.  Why  is  it  necessary 
that  the  sentence  have  the  triple  form  of  the  thought?  (1). 
A  subject,  expressing  the  thought  subject  of  the  judgment. 
(2).  A  predicate,  expressing  the  thought  predicate  of  the 
judgment.  (3).  A  copula,  expressing  the  thought  relation 
of  the  judgment.  A  picture  expresses  thought  but  it  does 
2 


18  A  New  English  Grammar. 

not  express  thought  as  the  sentence  does.  There  are  no  three 
parts  to  the  picture.  It  expresses  thought  by  resemblance. 
Its  form  is  determined  by  the  form  of  the  object  which  it 
represents.  But  there  is  no  resemblance  between  the  thought 
and  the  sentence  Avhich  expresses  it,  such  as  exists  in  the  pict- 
ure. The  thought  is  spiritual,  subjective;  the  sentence  is 
physical,  objective.  The  sentence  is  adapted  to  the  thought 
for  the  purpose  of  expressing  it,  and  is  determined  by  the 
thought.  Since  the  thought  is  not  like  the  sentence  and  can- 
not be  like  it  in  any  other  particular,  except  in  the  number 
of  its  elements,  the  sentence,  in  order  to  express  the  thought, 
must  take  on  the  triple  form  of  the  thought.  The  thought 
imposes  its  form  upon  the  sentence. 

It  might  be  said  here,  that  grammarians. 

Why  do  while  recognizing  the  fact  that  the  sentence 

Grammarians      u      *i       ^        ^    i,  x  •  ■,-,•.    j- 

Say  Two  Parts?  three^  parts,  have  not  considered  it  ot 

enough  importance  to  make  the  distinc- 
tion, at  all  times,  between  predicate  and  copula.  Since  the 
thought  predicate  and  thought  relation  are  so  frequently  ex- 
pressed by  the  same  word,  they  have  fallen  into  the  inaccu- 
racy of  dividing  sentences  into  two  narts,  a  subject  and  a  pred- 
icate. 

The  greatest  linguistf  in  this  country  says : 
"The  verb  be,  in  all  its  various  forms,  has 
come  to  stand  as  a  mere  connective  of  assertion  between  a 
subject  and  some  word  or  words  describing  that  subject,  and 
so  to  have  no  meaning  of  its  own  except  that  of  signifying 
the  assertion."     And  he  adds,  "Indeed,  every  verb  admits  of 

"See  Reed  and  Kollogg's  IliglKir  Lessons  in  English,  beginning  of  lesson  29.  Whit- 
ney's Essentials  of  English  Uianiinar,  p.  158,  par.  853.  "Our  Language,"  p  84 
Lee  and  Hadley's  Grammar,  pp.  53-55. 

t  The  late  Dr.  Williani  Dwight  Whitney,  Professor  of  Sanskrit  and  comparative 
Philology  and  instructor  in  modern  hinguages  in  Yale  College;  author  of  "Lan- 
guage and  the  Study  of  Language,"  "  Life  and  Growth  of  Language,"  etc.,  etc. 


Introduction.  19 

being  taken  apart,  or  analyzed,  into  some  form  of  this  copula 
be,  which  expresses  the  act  of  assertion,  and  a  predicate  noun 
or  adjective  (especially  the  verbal  adjective,  the  present  par- 
ticiple), expressing  the  condition  or  quality  or  action  predi- 
cated. Thus,  /  stand  is  nearly  I  am  erect,  or,  still  more  nearly, 
I  am  standing;  again.  They  beg,  is  equivalent  to  They  are  beg- 
gars, or,  They  are  begging  J  ^ 

In  the  above  examples,  each  sentence  has  three  parts.  For 
example,  in  ''They  are  begging,^'  the  word,  "They,"  is  the 
subject  of  the  sentence  and  expresses  the  thought  subject  of 
the  judgment;  the  word,  "begging,"  is  the  predicate  of  the  sen- 
tence and  expresses  the  thought  predicate  of  the  judgment; 
and  the  word,  "are,"  is  the  copula  of  the  sentence  and  ex- 
presses the  relation  which  the  mind  sees  between  the  thought 
subject  and  the  thought  predicate,  or  the  thought  relation  of 
the  judgment. 

Since  every  sentence  must  contain  a  verb,  it  follows,  that, 
if  the  above  statement  from  Dr.  Whitney  is  correct,  every 
sentence  may  not  only  be  separated  into  three  parts,  but 
must  contain  three  parts,  and  no  group  of  words  can  be  a 
sentence  or  can  possibly  express  a  thought,  if  it  lack  either  a 
subject  or  predicate  or  copula. 

Psychologists  In  addition  to  the  foregoing  discussion, 

and  Logicians,  which  seems  to  the  writer  to  set  forth  the 
reason  in  the  case,  it  might  be  said,  that  psychologists  and 
logicians  in  all  times  and  almost  without  exception,  have  in- 
sisted, that  the  sentence  must  have  three  parts  corresponding 
to  the  three  elements  of  the  judgment.  The  inaccuracy,  on 
the  part  of  grammarians,  has  come  about,  as  Dr.  C.  C. 
Everett,  of  Harvard  University,  points  out,  because  they 
have  divorced  grammar  from  logic,  which  is  sure  to  lead  to 
error,  since  the  sentence  is  only  an  instrument  in  expressing 


so  A  New  English  Grammar. 

the  thought,  and  grammar  is  directly  dependent  upon  logic 
at  every  point.  If  one  word  contains  two  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence, in  which  it  occurs,  that  is  all  the  more  reason  why  the 
analysis  of  the  student  should  be  subtle  enough  to  discover 
that  fact  and  to  identify  each  part  of  the  sentence  with  the 
element  of  the  thought  which  it  expresses.  To  express  two 
elements  of  the  thought  in  one  part  of  the  sentence  would 
be  confusing  to  say  the  least. 
Central  Idea  This  fundamental  attribute  in  the  nature 
Stated.  of  the  sentence,  as  it  is  determined  bv  the 
nature  of  the  thought,  is  the  most  universal  truth  in  the 
subject  of  grammar.  To  put  it  in  other  words,  the  most 
general  truth,  or  central,  or  determining,  or  relating  idea  in 
the  subject *of  grammar  may  be  stated  as  follows:  The  three 
elements  of  the  thought  as  they  are  accurately  expressed  in  the 
three  parts  of  the  sentence.  The  student  must  see  the  sentence 
as  the  expression  of  the  thought.  This  it  does  in  common 
with  a  great  many  other  things;  the  picture,  the  piece  of 
music,  the  statue,  etc.,  all  express  thought ;  but  the  sentence 
is  arbitrary,  expressing  thought  in  a  particular  way,  by 
means  of  its  triple  form,  and  the  student  must  see  this.  This 
states  the  end  and  purpose  of  all  the  study  of  the  science  of 
grammar.  Why  does  the  student  study  the  simple  sentence 
or  the  declarative  sentence?  To  see  how  the  three  elements 
of  the  thought  are  expressed  in  those  language  forms.  He 
wants  to  know  how  the  sentence  form  which  we  call  com- 
plex is  adapted  to  express  the  thought.  Why  does  he  study 
noun  or  verb?  To  see  what  part  they  play  in  the  expression 
of  the  three  elements  of  the  thought  in  the  three  parts  of 
the  sentence ;  to  see  how  these  language  forms  are  adapted  to 
the  expression  of  the  thought  and  how  they  are  determined 
by  the  thought. 


Intboduction.  81 

How  do  we  know  that  the  principle  just 
How  Do  We  stated  is  the  most  general,  and,  therefore, 
Know  This     ,,  •       x     xi         .n  i  ■    i.    r 

is  True?  governing  truth  m  the  subject  of  gram- 

mar? "  By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know 
them."  This  is  the  truth  which  organizes  the  subject.  It 
touches  every  fact  in  the  subject  and  is  the  essential  attribute 
of  every  such  fact.  It  is  the  truth  to  which  every  question 
concerning  the  subject  of  grammar  must  be  referred  for  its 
answer,  just  as  every  question  concerning  the  table  can  be 
answered  only  by  referring  it  to  the  central  idea  in  the  table. 
This  central  truth  in  the  subject  of  grammar  is  the  most 
general  truth  in  the  subject,  because  every  other  fact  of  the 
subject  depends  upon  it. 

The  value  of  this  view  of  the  subject  to 
nn^  Xf.    ^  ***     ^-^6  teacher  may  be  made  clear  by  pointing 
the  Teacher      ^^^^  what  the  governing  or  central  idea  of 
any  subject  will   indicate    to  the  teacher 
concerning  that  subject.     The  organizing  truth  of  a  subject 
will  determine  the  following  points  with  regard  to  the  sub- 
ject:    (1).     It  will  set  off  the  subject-matter  of  the  study 
from  the  subject-matter  of  all  other  studies.    (2).    It  will  in- 
dicate the  logical  order  of  topics  in  the  subject.    (3).    It  will 
determine  the  order  in  whicli  the  topics  should  be  acquired 
or  presented.     (4.)     It  will  indicate  the  important  and  un- 
important facts  of  the  subject.     (5).     It  will  indicate  the 
'  important  and  unimportant  elements  in  each  fact  in  the  sub- 
ject.    (6).     It  will  test  the  definitions  of  the  subject.     (7). 
It  will  indicate  the  mental  steps  which  the  student  must  take 
to  master  the  subject,  and  the  materials  which  the  teacher 
must  put  before  the  pupil  in  order  to  induce  his  mind  to  take 
these  steps. 


22  A  New  English  Grammar. 

There  must  be  some  reason  why  mathe- 

Central  Idea       maticians  have  grouped  certain  facts  and 

Sets  Off  Facts     ^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  arithmetic.  It  is  not  mere 

chance  that  scientists  inckidejust  the  facts 
they  do  include  in  the  subject  of  physiology  and  exclude  all 
other  facts.  There  is  certainly  some  method  by  which  gram- 
marians have  been  able  to  decide  what  facts  constitute  the 
science  of  grammar.  It  is  the  central  idea  in  the  subject 
which  sets  off  the  facts  of  that  subject  from  all  other  facts. 
The  central  idea  or  organizing  truth  of  the  subject  is  the  most 
universal  attribute  of  the  subject.  Any  fact  possessing  this 
attribute  is  a  fact  of  the  subject.  Any  fact  which  has  to  do 
with  the  accurate  expression  of  the  three  elements  of  the 
thought  in  the  sentence  form  is  a  fact  in  grammar. 

This  organizing  truth  in  the  subject  is 
Indicates  Log-i-  d^q  most  general  or  universal  truth  in  the 
*^^™  ^.^"^  **  subject.  Every  fact  in  the  subiect  is  re- 
lated  to  it.  Some  facts  in  the  subject  are 
more  closely  related  to  it  than  others.  The  fact  in  the  sub- 
ject which  stands  most  closely  related  to  the  organizing  truth, 
is  first  in  the  subject;  one  equally  near  in  its  relation  to  the 
central  truth  is  coordinate  to  it;  one  containing  a  less  degree 
of  the  central  truth  is  subordinate  to  both;  and  so  on  with 
all  the  facts  of  the  subject.  When  each  fact  is  given  its  place 
in  the  subject,  according  to  the  relation  which  it  bears  to  the 
central  idea,  the  subject  is  organized.  This  means  that  the 
order  of  dependence  among  the  facts  of  the  subject  has  been 
discovered;  the  relative  importance  of  the  facts  and  of  the 
elements  in  each  fact  may  be  seen;  and  the  teacher  sees  the 
order  in  which  the  facts  of  the  subject  should  be  presented 
and  why  they  should  be  presented  in  that  ord«r 


Introduction.  23 

Tests  The  organizing  truth  tests  the  definitions 

Definitions,  of  the  subject.  Every  fact  in  the  subject 
contains  a  certain  degree  of  the  general  truth  or  universal 
attribute  of  the  subject.  To  define  any  fact  of  the  subject 
is  to  show  its  relation  to  the  central  idea  of  the  subject.  A 
definition  of  the  noun  which  does  not  show  its  relation  to 
the  organizing  truth  of  grammar,  which  does  not  show  how 
it  helps  to  express  the  three  elements  of  the  thought  in  the 
three  parts  of  the  sentence,  is  faulty. 

Organized  When  the  student  sees  the  central  idea  of 
Knowledge,  the  subject  of  grammar  and  all  it  indicates 
with  regard  to  the  subject,  as  set  forth  in  the  preceding  dis- 
cussion, he  may  be  said  to  have  an  organized  or  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  subject. 

He  is  free  from  text-books,  except  as  he  uses  them  as  a 
means,  and  he  sees  the  subject  in  the  light  of  reason  and  in 
all  its  relations. 

Can  the  teacher  be  satisfied,  or  do  intelligent  work  in  the 
school  room,  with  a  less  comprehensive  view? 

The  most  severe  criticism  which  could  be 
<-'riticism.  pronounced  upon  grammarians  and  teachers 
of  grammar  is  that  made  by  Dr.  C.  C.  Everett,  of  Harvard, 
when  he  says,  they  have  divorced  grammar  from  logic.  And 
any  one  who  has  carefully  examined  our  text-books  in  gram- 
mar, or  observed  thoughtfully  much  of  the  work  done  in  our 
schools  in  this  subject,  will  be  compelled  to  admit  that  there 
is  more  truth  than  poetry  in  this  charge.  The  study  of 
grammar  has  become  largely  a  study  of  dry  form;  a  mere 
classification  of  words;  a  kind  of  jugglery  with  symbols. 
What  wonder  that  most  boys  and  girls,  with  normal  minds, 
hate  it ! 


24  A  New  English  Grammar. 

But  if,  as  Dr.  Harris  says*,  "Grammar 
True  View,  (jgfl^gg  and  fixes  speech;  by  its  mastery  man 
obtains  the  first  mastery  over  his  mind  as  an  instrument. 
*  *  *  It  is  the  key  to  all  that  is  spiritual.  *  *  * 
Grammar  as  etymology  and  syntax  initiates  the  pupil  into 
the  general  forms  of  thought  itself.  Thus  there  branch  out 
logic,  psychology-,  and  metaphysics,  as  well  as  the  various 
phases  of  philosophy.  Has  it  not  been  said,  indeed,  that 
the  father  of  logic  discovered  its  forms  through  grammar? 
Under  a  thin  veil  the  pupil  deals  with  pure  thought  when  he 
studies  syntax" — if  this  be  true,  then  there  is  no  lack  of  op- 
portunity for  thinking  in  the  study  of  grammar. 

The  sentence  is  only  the  "veil;"  it  is  composed  of  mere 
words;  but  this  form  has  a  content,  the  thought,  and  to  un- 
derstand the  sentence,  the  student  must  be  able  to  separate, 
in  thought,  this  form  from  its  content.  The  student  must 
constantly  hold  these  two  elements  in  mind  while  dealing 
with  the  sentence.  When  he  considers  the  sentence,  Glass  is 
brittle,  he  views  it  as  the  expression  of  a  thought  composed 
of  three  elements:  (1).  A  thought  subject,  the  idea,  glass; 
(2).  A  thought  predicate,  the  idea,  brittle;  (3).  A  thought  re- 
lation of  agreement  between  the  two.  In. the  expression  itself, 
he  sees  parts  corresponding  to  the  elements  of  the  thought: 
(1).  A  subject,  the  word,  "glass,"  expressing  the  thought 
subject;  (2).  A  predicate,  the  word,  "brittle,"  expressing 
the  thought  predicate;  (3).  A  copula  or  relational  element, 
the  word,  "is,"  expressing  the  thought  relation. 

When  he  considers  the  word,  "sour,"  in 
Two  Elements.     .^  .  m  ?      •        j 

the  sentence,  1  he  sour  apple  ripened  rap- 
idly, he  sees  two  elements;  first  the  form  or  word  and  second, 
its  content.    The  word,  ''sour,"  expresses  an  attribute  which 

"■See  Report  of  Board  of  Public  Schools,  St.  Louis,  bound  volume  of  1872-78. 


Introduction.  26 

belongs  to  the  idea  expressed  by  the  word,  "apple."  So  in 
dealing  with  the  word,  "rapidly,"  he  sees  that  it  expresses  an 
attribute  of  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  word,  "ripened." 
In  each  case  the  student  is  required  first,  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  form,  and  its  content,  and  second,  to  think  the  two 
together  again  to  see  how  the  form  organizes  itself  around 
the  thought  and  is  determined  by  it. 

Form  and  This  seeing   of  form  and  content  and  the 

Content.  relation  between  the  two  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized.  The  failure  on  the  part  of  gramma- 
rians and  teachers  to  keep  it  in  mind  has  given  to  the  study 
of  grammar  its  formal  and  lifeless  nature.  The  study  of  the 
sentence  from  this  point  of  view  is  no  simple  mental  activity. 
It  requires  the  most  careful  attention  and  very  close  and 
accurate  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  student.  He  is  first 
conscious  of  the  sentence  form,  a  group  of  words,  and  hav- 
ing obtained  the  thought  which  it  expresses,  he  proceeds  to 
analyze  that  thought  into  its  elements.  He  finds  that  there 
are  three  principal  elements  in  every  thought;  a  thought  sub- 
ject, a  thought  predicate,  and  a  thought  relation,  each  of 
which  may  be  composed  of  several  elements.  Finally,  he 
associates  each  element  of  the  thought  with  some  part  of 
the  sentence,  thus  making  the  parts  of  the  sentence,  the  rela- 
tions existing  among  them,  and  their  relations  to  the  thought, 
to  appear  clearly.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  a  complex  ac- 
tivity, the  student  being  required  to  hold  several  points  in 
mind,  while  he  thinks  his  way  careful!}^  through  the  sen- 
tence. These  two  processes  of  separating  form  and  content 
from  each  other,  and  each  one  into  its  elements,  analysis,  and 
thinking  form  and  content  back  again  into  a  vital  unity,  in 
order  to  see  how  the  thought  determines  the  form,  synthesis, 
are  the  two  fundamental  processes  in  the  mastery  of  grammar 


28  A  New  English  Grammar. 

The  principles  already  discussed  would 
Student  Must    indicate,  that  in  thinking  the  almost  infin- 

c      .  ite  variety  of  sentences  into  the  unity  of  a 

Sentences.         .     ,         '.     .   ,  ■,  .         .    .         i 

single  principle,  and  m  gaining  the  mas- 
tery over  the  sentence  as  an  instrument  for  communicating 
thought,  it  is  necessary  for  the  student  to  deal  not  with  text- 
books, but  with  this  great  variety  of  sentences.  Text-books 
are  helpful  to  him  in  proportion  to  the  degree  in  which  they 
put  the  subject-matter  of  grammar,  the  sentence,  before  him 
in  such  a  way  as  to  help  him  think  it  through  for  himself. 
But  if  all  texts  on  grammar  were  destroyed,  we  should  still 
have  the  subject-matter  of  grammar,  the  sentence,  left;  and 
the  student  might  be  led  to  construct  the  entire  science  of 
grammar  from  his  study  of  sentences. 

GRAMMAR  A  LOGICAL  SUBJECT. 

Now  perhaps  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  sub- 
ject of  grammar  is  a  subject  in  itself;  that  it  does  not  depend 
upon  text-books;  that  the  unit  of  it  is  the  sentence;  and  that 
every  principle,  definition,  and  fact  of  the  subject  is  wrapped 
up  there  in  the  sentence.  The  subject  has  an  organization 
of  its  own,  because  it  is  a  body  of  facts  bound  together,  or 
unified  by  a  central  idea  or  truth,  which  runs  through  or  in- 
heres in  all  the  facts  of  the  subject. 

But  now  I  wish  to  discuss  the  second  proposition;  viz., 
Grammar  is  a  reasonable  or  logical  or  thought  subject,  not 
an  arbitrary  subject  to  be  taken  on  authority.  It  is  not  to 
be  bolted  or  swallowed  whole. 

One  often  hears  that  the  Golden  Rule  is  true  because  it  is 
in  the  Bible.  It  is  not  true  because  it  is  in  the  Bible ;  it  is 
in  the  Bible  because  it  is  true.     Christ  gave  us  many  great 


Intkoduction.  27 

truths,  but  not  one  of  them  is  a  truth  because  Christ  gave 
it;  Christ  gave  them  to  us  because  they  are  truths. 

So  with  the  definitions  and  principles 
Definitions  and     ^f  ^]^g  subject  of  grammar;  they  do  not 

calf,  or  Sweet,  or  Whitney  has  them  in 
his  grammar.  These  men  did  not  make  or  invent  the  prin- 
ciples of  our  language  and  set  them  forth  for  us  to  commit 
and  follow  the  remainder  of  our  days,  nor  could  they  or  any 
other  men  possibly  do  so.  Grammarians  have  discovered 
and  stated  the  principles  of  language,  and  these  principles 
are  true,  if  they  are  true,  not  because  they  are  in  the  gram- 
marians' books,  but  they  are  in  the  books  because  they  are 
true. 

Sentence  an  The  sentence  is  merely  an  instrument  or 

Instrument,  means;  it  is  not  an  end  in  itself.  The  only 
legitimate  use  of  a  sentence  is  to  express  a  thought.  I  am 
aware  of  the  fact  that  there  are  those  who  think  that  Brown- 
ing and  others  like  him,  use  sentences  to  cover  up  thought. 
But  this  is  an  illegitimate  use  of  the  sentence  even  if  Brown- 
ing does  use  it  so.  A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  which 
expresses  a  thought.  This  statement  expresses  the  only  true 
function  of  the  sentence.  One  mind  has  a  thought  to  be 
communicated  to  another  mind;  the  sentence  is  the  vehicle 
of  that  thought.  If  there  were  no  thoughts  to  be  conveyed 
from  one  mind  to  another,  we  should  have  no  need  in  the 
world  for  a  sentence. 

Since  the  sentence  is  an  instrument  or  a  means,  it  is  like 
all  other  instruments  or  means  in  one  particular;  viz.,  it  is 
determined  by  that  which  it  is  to  do.  We  may  surely  say 
of  all  instruments  that  they  are  made  to  suit  the  work  which 


28  A  New  English  Geammab. 

they  are  to  perform ;  that  which  they  are  to  do  determines 
them  in  every  part  and  attribute.  It  would  be  ridiculous  to 
think  that  a  man  would  attempt  to  make  a  mowing  machine 
without  understanding  the  nature  of  grass,  or  the  place  in 
which  it  grows,  or  its  uses,  etc.  He  might  make  it  so  that 
it  would  run  only  on  a  smooth  floor  or  concrete  walk. 

Nature  of  an  Here  is  an  instrument  called  the  garden 
Instrument,  hoe.  Why  is  its  handle  five  feet  long  in- 
stead of  ten  feet  long?  Why  is  it  made  of  wood?  Why  is 
it  round  and  one  inch  in  diameter  instead  of  square  and 
three  inches  in  diameter?  Why  is  its  blade  four  inches  wide 
and  three  inches  long  instead  of  ten  inches  wide  and  nine 
inches  long?  Why  is  it  sharp?  And  is  it  not  easily  seen 
that  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  instrument  which  determines 
these  points?  How  could  any  man  who  knew  nothing  of 
the  nature  of  plants  and  the  soil  in  which  they  grow;  who 
did  not  know  that  weeds  grow  up  among  plants  and  must  be 
cut  out,  and  that  the  soil  about  the  roots  of  plants  must  be 
stirred;  how  could  a  man  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  the  work 
which  a  garden  hoe  is  to  perform,  make  such  an  instrument? 
And  more,  how  could  a  person,  ignorant  of  all  this,  under- 
stand the  instrument? 

You  are  going  along  the  street  and  you  find  a  little  wheel 
with  tiny  cogs.  What  is  the  first  question  you  ask  about  it? 
Why  it  is  this;  where  does  it  belong?  what  is  its  work?  is 
it  a  part  of  a  watch  or  a  bicycle,  or  what  is  it  for? 

How  we  Study  If  one  did  not  understand  the  garden 
an  Instrument.-  hoe,  he  might  study  it  point  by  point. 
He  might  see  that  the  handle  is  long  so  that  one  need  not 
stoop  over  too  much  in  digging  with  the  tool.  He  might  see 
that  the  blade  must  be  sharp  so  that  it  will  cut  the  weeds 


Introduction.  29 

and  stir  the  hard  ground  easily,  etc.  Each  time  he  notices 
a  characteristic  of  the  hoe,  he  sees  that  there  is  something  in 
the  nature  of  the  work  which  it  is  to  do  that  requires  that 
characteristic  in  the  hoe.  When  he  has  mastered  it,  he  sees 
the  appropriateness  of  this  instrument  to  do  its  work,  and 
how  the  instrument  depends  upon  its  work  for  its  nature. 

Now  there  is  nothing  arbitrary  or  mechanical  in  the  pro- 
cess by  which  the  individual  has  mastered  the  garden  hoe, 
if  he  has  done  it  in  the  way  indicated  above.  He  takes  noth- 
ing for  granted  and  nothing  on  authority.  He  sees  the  cor- 
respondence between  the  nature  of  this  instrument  and  the 
nature  of  the  work  which  it  is  to  do,  and  if  forty  authors  had 
written  text-books  on  the  garden  hoe,  and  every  one  of  them 
had  said  the  handle  should  be  three  inches  in  diameter  and 
made  of  iron,  he  would  not  believe  them. 

Now  the  sentence  is  like  the  garden  hoe. 

Sentence  jj^  ^]-,g^l^  j^  jg  j^j-j  instrument,  and  has  a  work 

Adapted  to  tlie     ,  r-  ■       ^-^.  •  ^  ii 

*         ,  .  to    periorm;  viz.,  the   expression   ot   the 

thought.  And  what  does  this  mean?  It 
means  that  the  sentence  is  adapted  to  the  work  of  express- 
ing the  thought  and  that  it  is  determined  in  every  part  and 
attribute  by  the  nature  of  the  thought,  which  it  expresses. 
It  is  just  as  necessary  to  understand  the  thought  and  its  na- 
ture in  order  to  understand  the  sentence,  as  it  is  to  under- 
stand the  garden  in  order  to  comprehend  the  garden  hoe. 

But  one  may  say  then,  how  can  you 
Logic  and^         keep  from  teaching  logic  and  psychology 
y  gy  jj-^  npi-ammar?     No  one  who  teaches  gram- 

mar  scientifically  can  keep  logic  and  psy- 
chology out  of  his  work,  for  grammar  is  dependent  upon  logic 
at  every  point,  and  the  explanation  of  every  grammatical 


30  A  New  English  Gkammar. 

form  involves  the  examination  of  a  mental  process.  The 
great  difficulty  is  that  grammarians  have  divorced  grammar 
and  logic,  in  a  great  measure,  and  this  has  given  to  the  sub- 
iect  its  lifeless  and  formal  nature.  It  has  made  it  a  mechan- 
ical, deadening,  memory  grind,  instead  of  an  intelligent, 
liealthful,  life-giving,  mental  gymnastic. 

One  might  turn  to  any  part  of  the  subject  of  grammar  for 
an  illustration  of  the  fact,  that  the  sentence  is  adapted  to  the 
expression  of  the  thought  and  is  determined  in  every  part 
and  attribute  by  the  nature  of  the  thought;  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  any  reasonable  explanation  of  language  forms 
without  viewing  them  in  relation  to  the  thought,  which  they 
express.  And  I  wish  now  to  illustrate  at  some  length,  this 
fundamental  view  of  grammar. 

The  entire  subject  of  grammar  falls  into  four  great  circles 
of  work: 

1.      THE  STUDY  OF  THE  CLASS  WHOLE. 

In  the  first  circle  of  the  work,  only  those  attributes  or 
characteristics  of  the  sentence  which  are  universal  are  no- 
ticed. The  student  has  as  many  different  kinds  of  sen- 
tences as  can  be  obtained  placed  before  him,  and  in  all  this 
variety,  he  is  asked  to  see  the  resemblances,  the  universal  at- 
tribute, which  makes  them  all  sentences.  He  finds  that 
some  of  these  individual  examples  are  long  and  some  short; 
some  declarative  and  some  interrogative;  some  simple  and 
some  complex;  some  inverted  order  and  some  natural  order; 
but  one  characteristic  is  found  in  each  of  them.  Not  every 
sentence  is  imperative;  not  every  one  has  a  compound  subject; 
but  they  all  have  either  explicit  or  implicit  in  them,  the 
triple  form,  expressing  the  thought. 


Intkoduction.  31 

This  fact  enables  him  to  unify  this  great 
^^  ^'  variety  of  sentences  and  to  see  the  unity  in 
the  thought  of  each  sentence.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  for 
the  student  to  grasp  the  unity  of  the  thought  in  a  long  and 
involved  sentence;  to  see  the  thought  subject  and  thought 
predicate,  which  the  mind  unites  by  an  act  of  thinking  into 
the  triple  unity — the  thought,  which  the  sentence  expresses. 
But  this  is  what  he  must  do  if  he  ever  masters  the  sentence, 
either  as  an  instrument  in  expressing  his  own  thought,  or  as 
a  medium  for  obtaining  the  thoughts  of  others. 

Close  of  First  At  the  close  of  this  phase  of  his  study  in 
Circle.  grammar,  the  student  should  be  able  to  take 
any  sentence,  distinguish  between  its  form  and  content,  an- 
alyze its  content  into  its  three  essential  elements,  see  the 
triple  organic  form  of  the  sentence  as  determined  by  the 
thought,  the  relation  of  each  element  of  the  thought  to  its 
corresponding  part  of  the  sentence,  and  should  be  able  to 
express  the  result  of  his  thinking  in  some  concise  form  such 
as  the  following: 

The  large  book  is  certainly  very  cheap.  This  is  a  sentence, 
l^ecause  it  is  the  expression  of  a  thought  in  words.  The 
subject  of  the  sentence  is  the  words,  "The  large  book," 
because  they  express  the  thought  subject.  The  predicate 
of  the  sentence  is  the  words,  "very  cheap,"  because  they 
express  the  thought  predicate.  The  copula  of  the  sentence, 
is  the  words,  "is  certainly,"  because  they  express  the  thought 
relation,  or  unifying  act  of  the  mind. 

Do  Not  Make  It  is  not  intended  that  the  above  form 

Work  Formal,  shall  always  be  used  by  the  student  in  ex- 
pressing the  result  of  his  thinking.  The  chief  thing  is  to 
have  his  mind  perform  the  two  mental  processes  of  analysis 


82  A  New  English  Grammar. 

and  synthesis  as  indicated  above,  and  any  set  form  of  ex- 
pressing the  result  is  rather  to  be  avoided,  as  having  a  ten- 
dency to  make  the  student  mechanical  and  formal. 

Throughout  this  entire  first  circle  of  the 
work,  the  student's  attention  is  directed  to 
but  one  thing — the  universal  sentence  lorm  as  determined 
by  the  thought.  •  He  is  not  permitted  to  say  that  the  idea 
expressed  by  the  word,  "book,"  in  the  above  sentence,  is  the 
thought  subject,  or  that  the  word,  "book,"  is  the  subject  of 
the  sentence;  but  he  must  see  each  element  of  the  thought 
and  each  part  of  the  sentence  as  a  unit.  The  idea  expressed 
by  the  words,  "The  large  book," for  that  is  one  idea,  though 
a  complex  one,  is  the  thought  subject,  and  all  these  words 
form  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

When  the  student  is  able  to  see  in  any  sentence,  each  one 
of  the  three  elements  of  the  thought,  which  is  expressed,  and 
see  it  as  a  unit,  no  matter  how  complex  it  may  be,  and  when 
he  sees  each  of  the  essential  parts  of  the  sentence  in  the  same 
way,  and  has  thought  the  whole  into  an  organic  unity,  in 
which  he  sees  the  sentence  as  standing  for  or  expressing  the 
thought,  he  is  ready  to  pass  from  the  first  circle  of  the  gram- 
mar work. 

^,       „  ,  It  will  usually  take  considerable  careful 

Careful   Work.  ,       -^-u  ^u    \   j     ^  ^  ui     i,-      ^ 

work  with  the  student  to  enable  him  to 

do  what  is  indicated  above,  but  it  is  worth  the  effort,  for  the 
student  who  has  this  ability  is  forever  free  from  mechanical 
or  formal  work  in  the  subject,  and  is  a  long  stride  on  his  way 
toward  the  mastery  of  grammar  as  based  upon  logic. 

2.      THE  STUDY  OF  CLASSES  OF  SENTENCES. 

In  the  second  circle  of  the  work,  the  pupil  still  deals  with 
sentences  as  wholes,  but  he  finds  there  are  likenesses  and  dif- 


Introduction.  33 

ferences  among  them  which  enable  him  to  classify  them. 
Basis  of  He  notices  that  one  kind  expresses  a  phase 
Meaning-.  of  thought  which  appeals  to  the  intellect. 
It  communicates  some  information. 

Another  kind  also  expresses  a  phase  of  thought  which  ap- 
peals to  the  intellect,  but  it  inquires  for  information,  asks 
for  some  element  of  the  thought  which  is  unknown  and 
sought  for. 

Still  another  kind  expresses  a  phase  of  thought  which 
awakens  the  emotions.  Some  information  may  be  commu- 
nicated, but  it  is  to  the  end  of  awakening  feeling. 

Lastly,  he  notices  that  some  sentences  express  thought 
which  is  intended  to  produce  an  act  of  will. 

So,  on  basis  of  meaning,  or  phase  of  mental  activity  which 
is  prominent,  or  power  of  mind  addressed,  he  divides  sen- 
tences into  the  following  classes:  Declarative,  Interrogative, 
Exclamatory,  Imperative. 

Basis  of  Some  thoughts  are  simple  in  structure; 

Form.  some  are  complex;  some  are  compound. 
The  pupil  will  see  that  sentences  must  be  of  these  kinds, 
also,  since  they  express  the  thoughts.  He,  therefore,  classi- 
fies sentences  on  basis  of  form,  as  determined  by  the  form 
of  the  thought  expressed,  into  the  following  classes:  Sim- 
ple, Complex,  and  Compound. 

Close  of  When  the  pupil  is  able  to  view  sen- 

Second  Circle,  tences,  as  determined  by  the  thought,  in 
the  ways  just  indicated,  he  is  ready  to  pass  from  the  second 
circle  of  the  grammar  work. 

3.  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  ORGANIC  PARTS  OF  THE  SENTENCE. 

In  the  third  circle  of  the  work,  the  study  of  the  organic 
parts  of  the  sentence  is  taken  up.     Subjects  of  sentences  are 
3 


34  A  New  English  Grammar. 

Parts  of       not  all  of  the  same  kind.    Some  are  simple, 
Sentence.      consisting  of  but  one  word;  others  are  long 
and  complex.     This  requires  a  combination  of  words,  for, 
however  long  the  subject  of  the  sentence  may  be,  it  must  be 
a  unity.     This  means  that  the  pupil  must  deal  with  the 
words,  composing  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  expressing  the 
unified  thought  subject,  just  as  he  has  dealt  with  the  sen- 
Content  and     tence,   which   expresses  the    unity    called 
Extent.  the  thought.    He  must  separate  form  from 

content;    the  extent  and   content   of  ideas  present  them- 
selves to  him ;  and  he  sees  the  whole  sub- 
^  ^         '      ject  of  modifiers  growing  out  of  this  distinc- 
tion.    He  discusses  the  thought  material  or  ideas,  out  of 
Thought       which  thought  subjects,  thought  predicates, 
Material.      and  thought  relations  are  made,  and  he  sees 
how  the  words  composing  the  subjects,  predicates,  and  copulas 
of  sentences  may  be  unified,  because  of  the  ideas  they  ex- 
press.    He  sees,  for  example,  that  in  the  sentence.     The  old 
arm-chair  is  broken,  he  could  not  say  that  the  word,  "arm- 
chair," is  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  because  the  mind  does 
not  assert  the  idea,  broken,  of  the  idea,  arm-chair ;  but  of  the 
idea,  arm-chair,  as  changed  by  the  ideas,  the  and  old. 

Parts  Adapted         Thus,  all  the  different  forms  which  sub- 
to  Elements  of     jects,  predicates,  and  copulas  may  have, 
Thought.  Q^Q  gggjj  ^Q  i^g  adapted  to  the  expression  of 

thought  subjects,  thought  predicates,  and  thought  relations 
and  determined  by  them.     We  have  principal  words  and 
Close  of  subordinate  or  modifying  words  in  these 

Third  Circle.  parts  of  the  sentence,  because  we  have 
principal  and  subordinate  ideas  in  the  elements  of  the 
thought  expressed  in  these  parts  of  the  sentence. 


Introduction.  36 

4.      "  PARTS   OF   SPEECH." 

In  the  last  circle  of  the  grammar  work,  the  student  fin- 
ishes the  work  for  which  he  has  laid  the  foundation  in  the 
circle  immediately  preceding,  so  that  the  last  circle  is  to  the 
third,  what  the  second  was  to  the  first.  In  the  third  circle, 
he  became  familiar  with  the  different  kinds  of  ideas  ex- 
pressed by  words;  viz.,  objects  of  thought,  attributes,  and 
ideas  of  relation.     On  that  basis,  he  classified  words  into 

Classes  of      the  following  classes:  substantive,  attribu- 

Words.        tive,  and  relation  words.    Two  other  kinds, 

he  learned,  were  sometimes  used  without  much  meaning, 

merely  to  fill  out  the  form  of  the  sentence;  viz.,  form  words 

and  feeling  words. 

Now,  in  the  fourth  circle,  by  observing  likenesses  and  dif- 
ferences, he  subdivides  these  classes  of  words,  and  thus  ar- 
rives at  "Parts  of  Speech."  When  the  pupil  sees  the  parts 
Close  of  Fourth  of  speech,  with  all  their  properties,  in  the 
Circle.  same  light  in  which  he  has  seen  all  the 

other  parts  of  the  sentence,  as  indicated  in  the  previous  dis- 
cussion, he  has  finished  the  fourth  circle  of  the  grammar 
work,  and  may  be  said  to  have  fairly  mastered  the  science  of 

the  subject. 

This  fourth  circle  of  work  can  never  be 
Conditions  of  mastered,  it  will  be  seen,  until  the  pupil 
Mastering-     ^^^^  clearly  that  there  are  distinctions   in 
the  Subject.     ,,,.,.,     ,,  i 

thought,  which  give  to  the  noun,  gender, 

person,  number,  and  case;  to  the  verb,  voice,  mode,  tense, 
etc.  If  the  action  of  the  mind  in  dealing  with  objective 
things  did  not  leave  with  it  a  notion  of  one  and  more  than 
one,  the  noun  never  would  have  had  that  property  which  we 
call  number;  and  if  it  were  not  possible  for  the  mind  to  think 
a  relation  between  a  thought  subject  and  a  thought  predicate 


36  A  New  English  Grammar. 

in  past  time,  present  time,  etc.,  the  verb  would  never  have 
had  that  property  which  we  call  tense. 

Use  of  tlie  It  might  be  said  in  passing,  that  the 

Word  "Circle."  word,  "circle,''  is  an  appropriate  word  to 
name  these  phases  of  the  grammar  work,  as,  in  each  case, 
the  pupil  starts  with  the  sentence, — and  after  considering 
parts,  refers  them  all  back  to  the  sentence  again;  or  he  starts 
with  a  whole,  and,  having  reduced  it  to  parts,  recombines  it 
again  into  a  whole — analysis  and  synthesis.  The  process  is 
a  passing  from  unity,  through  great  variety,  back  to  the  unity 
of  the  thought,  as  expressed  in  the  universal  sentence  form. 

This  is  Not  This  view  of  the  subject  makes  grammar 
Arbitrary,  a  thought  study,  not  a  set  of  rules  and  princi- 
ples to  be  accepted  upon  authority — and  committed  to  mem- 
ory; but  a  thing  which  is  logical  and  is  to  be  reasoned  out 
by  the  pupil.  It  is  not  a  mere  study  of  forms  but  a  study 
of  forms  as  determined  by  the  content  which  they  express. 

GRAMMAR   IS   AN  INDUCTIVE  SUBJECT. 
It  will  be  evident,  I  think,  that  the  work  which  follows 
and  constitutes  the  subject-matter  of  this  text,  is  arranged 
according  to  the  principles  set  forth  in  this  discussion  and 
with  this  thought  in  mind:  that  grammar,  when  properly 
Laboratory    studied,  is  an  inductive  subject,  and  should 
Method.       be  presented  according  to  what  might  ap- 
propriately be  called  the  laboratory  method. 

If  the  scientific  student  wishes  to  make 
Compared  himself  master  of  the  mushroom,  he  goes 

^   *      ^^*  ^  *^       out  into  the  fields  and  gathers  a  specimen 
Sciences.  ^^  every  variety.     He  examines  the  speci- 

mens carefully  and  tries  to  discover  the  com- 
mon characteristics  or  uniyersal  or  essential  marks  which 


Introduction.  87 

make  them  all  mushrooms.  By  the  aid  of  his  glass  and 
knife,  he  finds  out  how  the  specimens  differ  and  on  basis  of 
the  fundamental  differences,  he  separates  them  into  classes. 
He  takes  advantage  of  the  experience  of  other  men,  in  work- 
ing with  mushrooms,  as  they  have  recorded  it  for  him  in 
texts.  By  means  of  this  experience,  he  verifies  his  own  con- 
clusions. Often,  by  means  of  this  experience,  he  finds  that 
he  has  made  mistakes  in  his  work,  and  he  returns  to  his 
specimens  to  examine  them  more  carefully  and  discover  his 
errors.  When  he  has  completed  his  work,  he  is  authority  on 
mushrooms  himself. 

Why  can't  the  student  of   grammar 
Grammar  Can      gtudy  the  clause  in  this  way?     He  will 
,     Th'^Wa  '       ^^^  have  as  much  difficulty  in  collecting 
his   specimens  as  the  student  of  mush- 
rooms had.     He  will  need  no  microscope  or  scalpel.     He 
can  see  that  each  of  his  specimens  has  a  subject,  predicate, 
and  copula,  and  is  used  as  a  part  of  a  sentence  just  as  easily, 
perhaps  more  easily,  than  the  student  of  mushrooms  saw  the 
common  characteristics  of  mushrooms.     He  can  also  see  dis- 
tinctions which  will  enable  him,  on  dificrent  bases,  to  sep- 
arate them  into  classes;  as,  substantive,  attributive,  simple, 
complex,  compound,  adjective,  adverbial,  etc.     In  short,  the 
entire  subject  of  clauses  can  be  thought  out  from  examples, 
just  as  the  entire  subject  of  mushrooms  was  thought  out  from 
the  specimens,  by  the  student. 

Teacher  and         ^^  ^^  ^^^  claimed  that  the  pupil  in  the 
Text  to  Aid      grades  can  do  this  without  the  aid  of  the 
Pupil.  teacher  and   the  text.     The   teacher  will 

stimulate  and  direct  his  thought  by  proper  questions  and  en- 
couragement.    The  text  will  disclose  to  him  the  errors  in  his 


38  A  New  English  Grammar. 

conclusions  and  send  him  back  to  study  the  examples  more 
carefully.  But  when  he  is  through  with  the  subject,  he  will 
see  all  of  grammar  in  the  sentence  and  it  will  be  a  reason- 
able thing  to  him,  not  a  set  of  dry,  arbitrary  rules. 

The  Difference  ^^^*^  difference  between  grammar  stud- 
Between  Life  ied  in  this  way,  and  technical  grammar 
and  Death.  •  as  it  is  too  often  taught,  is  the  difference 
between  life  and  death  to  the  student;  it  is  the  difference  be- 
tween an  intelligent,  healthful,  life-giving,  mental  gymnastic, 
and  a  mechanical,  deadening,  verbal  memory  grind.  The 
one  process  leaves  him  with  the  arbitrary  technic  of  the  sub- 
ject, a  mere  crust,  which  he  loathes;  the  other  makes  him 
feel,  as  Dr.  C.  C.  Everett*  has  said,  that,  "There  is  hardly 
anything  more  interesting  than  to  see  how  the  laws  of  gram- 
mar, which  seem  at  first  sight  so  hard  and  arbitrary,  are  sim- 
ply the  laws  of  the  expression  of  logical  relations  in  con- 
crete form." 

*See  his  "  Science  of  Tliought,"  a  book  which  no  teacher  of  grammar  should  be 
without,  p.  82 


GRAMMAR. 


THE  SUBJECT  AS  A  WHOLE. 

EXERCISE  1 . 

Give  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word,  definition. 

The  word,  definition,  comes  from  the  Latin,  de,  meaning,  a  part- 
ing from,  around,  about,  etc.;  finire,  to  limit,  to  bound;  and  the  suf- 
fix, ion,  the  act  of.  Literally,  then,  the  word  means,  the  act  of  bound- 
ing about,  or  the  act  of  limiting  from. 

State  the  marks  of  a  good  definition.  Illustrate  by  any 
common  definition. 

The  marks  of  a  good  definition  are  three: 
\.    Name  the  thing  defined. 

2.  Put  it  into  the  smallest  known  class. 

3.  Give  the  marks  or  oiiaracteristics  of  it  which  set  it  off  from 

all  other  members  of  that  class. 

A  noun  is  a  substantive  ivord  which  expresses  an  object  of  thought  by 
naming  it.  When  we  say,  a  noun,  we  have  named  the  thing  to 
be  defined ;  when  we  say,  is  a  substantive  word,  we  have  put  it  into 
the  smallest  known  class;  when  we  say,  which  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  by  naming  it,  we  have  distinguished  it  from  the  other  mem- 
ber of  this  class,  the  pronoun.  It  is  better  to  put  the  thing  defined 
into  the  smallest  class  than  to  put  it  into  a  large  class,  because  that 
gives  us  more  characteristics  of  the  thing,  and,  tlien,  we  have  fewer 
individuals  from  which  to  distinguish  it.  It  must  be  put  into  a 
known  class,  else  one  would  not  know  what  characteristics  to  attrib- 
ute to  the  thing  defined. 

Note.— The  teacher  should  have  the  pupils  test  all  definitions  by  this  standard. 


40  A  New  English  Grammar. 

EXERCISE  2. 

Its  Place  in  the  Language  Group. 

To  what  group  of  subjects  does  grammar  belong?  Name 
the  other  subjects  of  the  group.  How  do  you  distinguish 
grammar  from  the  others? 

Grammar  belongs  to  that  group  of  studies  which  we  call  language 
studies,  because  it  deals  with  or  has  for  its  subject-matter,  language. 
Arithmetic  does  not  belong  to  this  group,  because  its  subject-matter 
is  not  language,  but  number. 

The  other  subjects  of  this  group,  which  we  study  in  the  public 
schools,  are:  Orthography,  orthoepy,  word  analysis,  composition 
and  rhetoric,  reading,  and  literature. 

Orthography,  orthoepy,  and  word  analysis  deal  Avith  or  have  for 
their  subject-matter  that  unit  of  language  which  we  call  the  word. 
Composition  and  rhetoric,  reading,  and  literature  deal  with  or  have 
for  their  subject-matter  that  unit  of  language  which  we  call  dis- 
course. Grammar  deals  with  that  unit  of  language  which  we  call 
the  sentence. 

It  might  be  thought  that  in  working  with  "Parts  of  Speech"  in 
grammar,  we  are  dealing  with  words,  A  little  reflection  will  show 
us,  however,  that  we  are  not  dealing  with  a  word  as  the  unit.  If 
we  ask.  What  part  of  speech  is  the  word,  ^'Jine?"  we  are  unable  to 
tell  until  we  see  it  in  a  sentence.  If  we  say.  It  is  a  fine  day,  the 
word,  "fine,"  is  an  adjective.  If  we  say.  The  fine  was  remitted,  it  is 
a  noun.  If  we  say,  I  fine  you  ten  dollars  and  costs,  it  is  a  verb.  If 
we  ask,  In  what  case  is  the  word,  "pen?"  we  cannot  tell  until  we  see 
the  word  used  in  a  sentence.  If  we  say.  My  pen  is  gold,  the  word, 
"pen,"  is  in  the  nominative  case.  If  we  say,  I  write  with  my  pen,  it 
is  in  the  objective  case.  Much  more  might  be  said  to  show  that 
whenever  we  are  dealing  with  words  in  the  subject  of  grammar, 
the  sentence  is  still  the  unit.  We  deal  with  words  only  as  parts 
of  sentences. 

This,  then,  is  the  distinguishing  mark  of  grammar.  It  has 
for  its  unit  the  sentence.  No  other  language  subject  deals 
with  the  sentence  or  has  it  for  its  unit. 


Nature  of  the  Sentence.  41 

Define  grammar.     Show  that  your  definition  conforms  to 

the  requirements  of  a  true  definition. 

Grammar  is  that  language  study  which  has  for  its 
subject-matter  or  vinit  the  sentence. 

When  we  say,  Grammar,  we  have  named  the  thing  defined.  When 
we  say,  is  that  language  study,  we  have  put  it  into  the  smallest,  known 
class.  When  we  say,  which  has  for  its  subject-matter  or  unit  the  sentence, 
we  have  given  the  mark  of  it  which  sets  it  off  from  all  other  mem- 
bers of  that  class. 

With  what  does  grammar  deai  or  what  is  its  subject-matter? 
(Make  an  outline  of  language  subjects,  showing  the  place 
of  grammar  among  them.) 

Language  Studies. 

1 .  Unit — the  word. 

m.    Orthography. 

b.  Orthoepj'. 

c.  Word  analysis. 

2.  Unit— the  sentence. 

a.     Grammar. 

3.  Unit — discourse. 

a.    Composition  and  rhetoric. 
6.     Reading. 
c.     Literature. 


THE  SENTENCE  AS  A  WHOLE. 

EXERCISE  3. 

Nature  of  the  Sentence. 

What  is  a  sentence? 

A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  which  expresses  a 

thought;  e.  g.,  James  is  a  tall  boy. 

What  is  a  thought  or  judgment? 

A  thought  or  judgment  is  a  mental  act  in  which  the  mind 
sees  or  asserts  a  relation  between  ideas.    I  have  in  mind  the  idea, 


42  A  New  English  Grammar. 

apple.  I  also  have  in  mind  the  idea,  red.  But  these  do  not  con- 
stitute a  thought  or  judgment  so  long  as  they  are  isolated,  for 
red  may  belong  to  cloud,  or  hall,  or  card;  but  so  soon  as  my  mind 
thinks  or  asserts  the  idea,  red,  of  the  idea,  apple,  or  sees  that  the 
red  is  an  attribute  of  the  apple,  or  that  it  is  not  an  attribute  of  the 
apple,  then  it  has  a  judgment  which  may  be  expressed  in  the  sen- 
tence.  The  apple  is  red,  or  The  apple  is  not  red. 

What  are  the  necessary  elements  of  a  thought  or  judgment? 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  example  that  a  judgment  or 
thought  has  three  necessary  elements:  1.  An  idea  about 
which  the  mind  thinks  or  asserts  something.  2.  An  idea  which  the 
mind  thinks  or  asserts  of  the  first  idea.  3.  A  relation  which  it  sees 
to  exist  between  the  two  and  by  which  it  unites  the  elements  into 
one  thing — the  judgment. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  three  elements  of 
each  thought  expressed : 

1.  The  house  is  large. 

2.  The  trees  are  maples. 

3.  The  school  studies. 

Note.— other  examples  may  be  found  in  Part  H. 

Name  and  define  each  of  the  elements  of  a  thought  or  judg- 
ment.    Illustrate. 

These  elements  of  the  judgment,  we  call  the  thought  subject, 
the  thought  predicate,  and  the  thought  relation  in  order  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  parts  of  the  sentence.* 

The  thought  subject  is  that  idea  about  which  the  mind  thinks 
or  asserts  something. 

The  thought  predicate  is  the  idea  which  the  mind  thinks  or 
asserts  of  the  thought  subject. 

The  thought  relation  is  that  idea  of  relation  which  the  mind 
sees  to  exist  between  the  thought  subject  and  thought  predicate. 
This  relation  is  always  one  of  agreement  or  one  of  disagreement. 

<■  The  teacher  cannot  drill  too  much  on  this  point  or  be  too  careful  to  have  the 
pupil  distinguish  between  the  thought  or  judgment  and  the  sentence. 


The  Parts  of  the  Sentence.  48 

The  mind  always  sees  that  the  thought  predicate  is  a  part  or  attri- 
bute of  the  thought  subject;  e.  g.,  The  man  is  charitable,  The  sun 
shines.  Or  it  sees  that  the  thought  subject  is  an  individual  or  a 
class  of  individuals  and  the  thought  predicate  is  an  individual  or  a 
class,  and  that  one  forms  a  part  of  the  other;  e.  g.,  Monroe  was  a 
statesman,  Violets  are  plants.  These  men  are  natives.  When  the  mind 
thinks  of  any  of  these  relations  between  thought  subject  and  thought 
predicate,  we  call  it  a  relation  of  agreement. 

But  the  mind  may  think  just  the  opposite  of  this  relation;  i.  e.,  it 
may  think  the  thought  predicate  as  not  belonging  to  the  thought 
subject,  or  that  the  thought  subject  is  not  a  part  of  the  thought 
predicate;  e.  g.,  The  man  is  not  charitable,  Monroe  was  not  a  states- 
man. When  the  mind  thinks  this  kind  of  relation  between  thought 
subject  and  thought  predicate,  we  call  it  a  relation  of  disagreement. 

In  the  thought  or  judgment  expressed  in  the  sentence,  Webster, 
the  statesman,  was  a  great  lawyer,  the  idea,  Webster,  the  statesman,  is  the 
thought  subject,  because  it  is  the  idea  about  which  the  mind  asserts 
something.  The  idea,  a  great  lawyer,  is  the  thought  predicate,  be- 
cause it  is  the  idea  which  the  mind  asserts  of  the  thought  subject. 
The  thought  relation  is  one  of  agreement,  because  the  attributes  of 
a  great  lawyer,  are  asserted  of  Webster,  the  statesman,  or  are  seen  to 
belong  to  him,  or  Webster,  the  statesman,  is  seen  to  constitute  one  of 
the  class,  a  great  lawyer. 

EXERCISE  4. 

The  Parts  of  the  Sentence. 

Name  the  parts  of  the  sentence.  To  what  elements  of  the 
thought  do  they  correspond? 

The  sentence  exists  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  the  thought. 
There  is  no  other  use  for  a  sentence.  If  there  were  no  judgments  to 
express,  we  should  have  no  use  for  sentences.  The  sentence,  then, 
is  just  a  means  or  instrument.  The  means  or  instrument  is  always 
adapted  to  the  work  which  it  is  to  perform.  The  sentence,  then, 
must  be  adapted  to  the  thought.  It  must  then  have  a  part,  express- 
ing the  thought  subject;  a  part,  expressing  the  thought  predicate; 
and  a  part,  expressing  the  thought  relation.* 

*  No  thought  is  more  vital  in  the  subject  of  prammar  than  the  one  just  stated. 
The  teacher  will  find  a  more  extended  discussion  of  it,  beginning  on  page  18  of  the 
Introduction  to  "  Studies  in  the  Science  of  English  Grammar." 


44  A  New  English  Geammak. 

The  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the  subject,  the  predicate, 
and  the  copula. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  principal  elements 
of  each  thought  expressed,  and  the  corresponding  parts  of  the 
sentences: 

1 .  Science  is  organized  knowledge. 

2.  Flowers  are  plants. 

3.  Knowledge  ia  power. 

4.  Planning  saves  time. 

5.  The  human  heart  refuses  to  believe  in  a  universe  without  a 
purpose. 

C\    Each  is  bound  to  all. 

7.  Artists  are  nearest  God. 

8.  Do  to-day  thy  nearest  duty. 

9.  Could  we  rest,  we  must  become  smaller  in  soul. 
Note.— Teacher  may  find  other  sentences  in  Part  n. 

Define  each  of  the  parts  of  the  sentence.  Give  literal  mean- 
ing of  each  term. 

The  word,  subject,  comes  from  the  Latin,  sub,  meaning  under,  and 
jacere,  meaning  to  throw.  Literally,  then,  the  word  means  to  throw 
under. 

The  word,  predicate,  comes  from  the  Latin,  prae,  meaning  before, 
and  dicare,  meaning  to  make  known,  to  declare.  Literally,  then, 
the  word  means  to  make  known  or  to  declare  before. 

The  word,  copula,  comes  from  the  Latin,  co,  meaning  together,  and 
apere,  meaning  to  join,  to  seize.  The  word  means,  then,  to  seize  or 
join  together. 

The  subject  of  the  sentence  is  a  word  or  group  of  words  which 
expresses  the  thought  subject. 

The  predicate  of  the  sentence  is  a  word  or  group  of  words 
which  expresses  the  thought  predicate. 

The  copula  of  the  sentence  is  a  word  or  group  of  words  which 
expresses  the  thought  relation. 

In  the  sentence.  Science  is  organized  knowledge,  the  subject  of  the 
sentence  is  the  word,  science,  because  it  expresses  the  thought  subject. 


Classes  of  Sentences  on  Basis  of  Mea-ning. 


45 


The  predicate  of  the  sentence  is  the  words,  organized  knowledge,  be- 
cause they  express  the  thought  predicate.  The  copula  is  the  word, 
is,  because  it  expresses  the  thought  relation. 

(Make  an  outline  of  the  principal  elements  of  the  thought 
and  the  principal  parts  of  the  sentence.) 


The  thought  ok  judgment. 

1.  Definition. 

2.  Elements. 

a.  Thought  subject. 

b.  Thought  predicate, 
c'   Thought  relation. 


The  sentence. 

1.  Definition. 

2.  Parts. 

a.    Subject. 
h.    Predicate. 
c.     Copula. 


CLASSES  OF  SENTENCES. 

EXERCISE  5. 

On  Basis  of  Meaning. 

*  State  the  efifect  which  eacli  of  the  following  sentences  pro- 
duces on  the  mind.  Point  out  the  principal  elements  of 
each  thought  expressed : 

1.  The  sun  is  shining  brightly. 

2.  Is  the  sun  shining  brightly? 

3.  Oh,  how  brightly  the  sun  is  shining! 

4.  John,  look  out  of  the  Vindow  and  see  if  the  sun  is  shining 
brightly. 

5.  Constant  dropping  wears  away  stone!?. 

(i.    Tom  rowed  with  untired  vigor,  and  with  a  difierent  speed  from 
poor  Maggie's. 

7.  Mercy,  sir,  how  the  folks  will  talk  of  it  I 

8.  Men's  evil  manners  live  in  brass,  their  virtues  we  write  in  water. 


'■"  These  questions  and  fiugRestions  should  l)c  simplified  and  expanded  by  the 
teacher  to  suit  the  grade  of  mind  witli  which  she  is  working.  They  are  intended 
to  be  suggestive,  and  any  explanation  the  teacher  can  mal<e  in  assigning  the  lesson, 
to  make  it  more  definite,  will  be  helpful ;  e.  g.,  What  is  the  meaning  of  each  of  the 
following  sentences?  What  does  each  one  make  you  think?  Suppose  you  used 
each  one  yourself,  what  purpose  would  you  have?  etc.,  etc. 


46  A  New  English  Gbammar. 

9.  Come,  Rollo,  let  us  take  a  walk. 

10.  "Think  you,  Abel,"  said  Paul  at  last,  "that  the  storm  drove 
thither?" 

11.  Whj'  was  the  French  Revolution  so  bloody  and  destructive  ? 

12.  Praise  ye  the  Lord. 

13.  Honey  from  out  the  quarreled  hive  I'll  bring. 

14.  Lead  us  to  some  far-off  sunny  isle. 

15.  Where  are  you  going,  my  pretty  maid? 

16.  The  teacher  asked,  "  What  are  you  doing?" 

17.  The  Lord  said  to  Cain,  "  Where  is  thy  brother?" 

18.  Cain  said,  "Am  I  my  brother's  keeper?" 

19.  Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged. 

20.  The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold, 
The  minstrel  was  infirm  and  old. 

How  many  kinds  of  sentences  do  you  find  in  the  preceding 
list?  Define  and  illustrate  each.  On  what  basis  is  the  divi- 
sion made? 

On  basis  of  effect  produced  upon  the  mind,  or  purpose, 
or  meaning",  sentences  are  of  four  kinds:  Declarative,  Interroga- 
tive, Exclamatory,  Imperative. 

A  declarative  sentence  is  one  which  is  addressed  to  the  mind 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  it  information;  e.  g.,  Men^s  evil  manners  live 
in  brass,  their  virtues  we  -write  in  ivater. 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  which  is  addressed  to  the 
mind  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  information;  e.  g..  Why  ivas  the 
French  Revolution  so  bloody  and  destructive? 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  which  is  addressed  to  the 
mind  for  the  purpose  of  awakening  emotion  ;  e.  g.,  Mercy,  sir,  how  the 
folks  will  talk  oj  it! 

An  imperative  sentence  is  one  which  is  addressed  to  the  mind 
for  the  purpose  of  moving  the  will ;  e.  g..  Come,  Rollo,  let  us  take  a  walk. 

The  Interrogative  sentence  always  denotes  that  some  element  of 
the  thought  is  unknown  and  is  sought  for  by  the  person  using  the 
sentence.  If  one  says.  Who  is  in  the  room  f  he  shows  that  his  thought 
subject  is  unknown  and  sought  for.  The  word,  who,  indicates  it, 
and  if  you  answer  his  question  and  say,  James  is  in  the  room,  you  have 


Abkangembnt.  47 

simply  changed  the  word,  who,  to  James,  and  have  thereby  supplied 
the  thought  subject  for  which  he  was  seeking. 

In  the  sentence,  What  are  you  doing?  the  thought  predicate  is  un- 
known and  sought  for.  It  is  indicated  by  the  word,  ivhat.  In  the 
sentence.  Whom  do  you  wantf  the  direct  object  is  unknown  and 
sought  for.  It  is  indicated  by  the  word,  Wwm.  In  the  sentence, 
h  the  room  xvarmf  the  thought  relation  is  unknown  and  sought  for 
and  it  is  indicated  by  the  arrangement  of  the  sentence.  If  you 
change  the  arrangement  thus.  The  room  is  warm,  there  is  no  element 
of  the  thought  unknown  and  sought  for. 

EXERCISE  6. 

Arrangement. 

State  concerning  the  following  sentences,  whether  they 
simply  express  a  thought,  or  express  a  thought  some  element 
of  which  is  unknown  and  sought  for.  If  the  latter,  state 
what  element  of  the  thought  is  unknown  and  sought  for. 
State  what  word  or  words  denote  the  unknown  element  of 
thought,  or  what  it  is  that  tells  you  there  is  an  unknown  ele- 
ment of  thought.  Also  point  out  sentences  which  do  neither 
of  the  above  and  state  their  uses. 

1.  I  am  a  poor  man. 

2.  Who  will  help  me  ? 

3.  Every  man's  task  is  his  life-preserver. 

4.  Whose  book  have  you  ? 

5.  What  will  you  take  ? 

6.  Of  whom  do  you  speak  ? 

7.  When  shall  it  be  morn  in  the  grave? 

8.  The  devil  can  catch  a  lazy  man  with  a  bare  hook. 

9.  Am  I  required  to  go? 

10.  Can'st  thou  number  the  stars? 

11.  Send  the  letter  in  the  first  mail. 

12.  Hath  the  rain  a  father? 

13.  How  frightful  is  the  grave! 

14.  Can'st  thou  stop  the  winds  in  their  course? 


48  A  New  English  Grammar. 

15.  Will  you  bring  me  the  book  ? 

16.  Bring  me  the  book. 

17.  How  beautiful  upon  the  mountains  are  the  feet  of  him  that 
bringeth  glad  tidings! 

18.  Children,  obey  your  parents. 

19.  Go  in  peace  and  sin  no  more. 

20.  How  far  yon  candle  throws  its  little  beam! 

21.  There  is  no  place  like  home. 

22.  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians. 

23.  "If  it  feed  nothing  else,"  said  Shylock,  "it  will  feed  my 
revenge." 

24.  How  wonderful  is  sleep ! 

25.  Be  ye  perfect,  even  as  your  Father  in  Heaven  is  perfect. 

26.  How  completely  his  passion  has  blinded  him ! 

27.  Consider  my  servant  Job. 

28.  Thou  Shalt  not  steal. 

29.  I  wish  to  know  how  far  it  is  to  Xenia. 

30.  The  truth,  itself,  is  not  believed, 
From  one  who  often  has  deceived. 

31.  My  poor  mother  was  worried  all  day. 

32.  The  poor  child  is  dead. 

33.  That  you  have  wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this. 

34.  Charity  begins  at  home. 

35.  The  Romans,  having  conquered  the  world,  were  unable  to 
conquer  themselves. 

Observe  the  position  of  the  words  in  the  preceding  sen- 
tences and  state  the  arrangement  of  the  different  classes  of 
sentences. 

What  do  we  mean  by  arrangement?  What  kinds  have 
we?  Define  and  illustrate  each.  Write  a  sentence  with  the 
subject  of  thought  unknown  and  sought  for;  the  predicate 
of  thought  or  a  part  of  it;  the  thought  relation.  What  dis- 
tinguishes an  exclamatory  sentence  from  a  declarative  sen- 


Arrangement.  49 

tence  which  expresses  feeling?  Illustrate,  What  do  we  mean 
by  a  sentence  interrogative  in  form  and  declarative  in  mean- 
ing; declarative  in  form  but  imperative  in  meaning;  inter- 
rogative in  form  and  imperative  in  meaning?    Illustrate  each. 

Arraugemeiit  is  the  order  in  which  the  parts  of  the  sentence 
occur. 

There  are  two  main  kinds  :  the  regular  or  natural  order  and 
the  inverted  order. 

The  natural  order  is  that  arrangement,  usually  found  in  de- 
clarative sentences,  in  which  the  subject  and  its  modifiers  come  first, 
the  copula  and  its  modifiers  next,  and  the  predicate  and  its  modi- 
fiers last ;  e.  g.,  The  devil  can  catch  a  lazy  man  with  a  bare  hook. 

The  declarative  sentence  is  not  always  arranged  in  this  way ;  e.g., 
Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians. 

By  the  inverted  arrangement,  we  mean  any  order  of  the 
parts  of  the  sentence  other  than  the  natural  order. 

The  usual  arrangement  for  the  declarative  sentence  is  the  natural 
order. 

If,  in  the  interrogative  sentence,  the  thought  subject  is  unknown 
and  sought  for,  the  arrangement  is  the  natural  order;  e.g.,  Who 
kilkd  Cock  Robin  f  When  any  other  element  of  the  thought  is  un- 
known and  sought  for,  the  arrangement  is  inverted  order.  If  there 
is  a  word  in  the  sentence  which  denotes  the  unknown  element  of 
the  thought,  it  will  come  first  in  the  sentence;  e.  g..  Whom  do  ye 
aeekf  Sometimes  a  preposition  will  be  used  before  it;  e.  g..  For 
whom  did  he  inquire  f  When  the  unknown  element  of  the  thought 
is  indicated  by  the  arrangement  of  the  sentence,  the  copula  or  an 
auxiliary  verb  is  used  first  in  the  sentence  ;  e.  g.,  h  the  bridge  safef 
Do  you  believe  his  story?  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  arrangement 
occurs  only  when  the  thought  relation  is  unknown  and  sought  for. 

The  exclamatory  sentence  may  have  either  arrangement. 

The  only  peculiarity  of  the  imperative  sentence  is  that  the  sub- 
ject of  it  is  usually  understood. 

Since  this  division  of  sentences  is  on  basis  of  meaning,  or  eflPect 
produced  upon  the  mind,  the  form,  arrangement,  or  punctuation  of 

4 


50  A  Nbw  English  Grammar. 

the  sentence  which  we  may  have  under  consideration,  will  not  help 
us  to  classify  it.  A  declarative  sentence  may  express  feeling,  but 
its  chief  purpose  will  be  to  convey  information.  If  we  say,  The  poor 
child  is  dead,  we,  no  doubt,  express  emotion ;  but  if  we  are  speaking 
to  one  who  does  not  know  the  fact,  our  purpose  is  clearly  to  convey 
to  him  information,  and  the  sentence  is  declarative.  But  we  might 
use  the  same  words  merely  to  express  our  emotion,  in  which  case, 
the  sentence  would  be  exclamatory. 

If  we  say,  Can^st  thou  stoj)  the  tvinds^  in  their  course?  we  are  evidently 
not  seeking  for  information.  We  mean,  It  is  impossible  for  any  one 
to  stop  the  winds  in  their  course,  and  the  sentence  is  declarative. 

If  we  saj',  I  wish  you  to  close  your  books,  the  sentence  has  the  ar- 
rangement of  a  declarative  sentence ;  but  it  is  evidently  addressed 
to  the  mind  for  the  purpose  of  influencing  the  will.  On  basis  of 
meaning,  it  is  imperative. 

So  in  the  sentence,  Will  you  bring  me  a  drink  f  the  sentence  is  in- 
terrogative in  form  and  punctuation  ;  but  it  is  imperative  in  mean- 
ing, because  it  is  addressed  to  the  mind  for  the  purpose  of  influen- 
cing the  will. 

EXERCISE  7. 
Punctuation. 
Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons : 

1.  OhKvhat  a  fall  was  there  my  countrymen  , 

2.  Oh  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness , 
.3.     Oh  how  happy  I  am  . 

4.  Oh  that  I  had  the  wings  of  a  dove  . 

5.  Alas  that  thou  shouldst  die 

ti.  Oh  that  this  too  too  solid  flesh  would  melt 

7.  Oh  that  those  lips  had  language 

8.  Oh  it  hurts  me 

9.  Oh  father  listen  to  mu 

10.  Oh  wretched  state 

11.  Oh  where  shall  rest  be  found 

12.  Fie  on  him 

13.  Oh  that  I  could  And  him 

14.  O  bosom  black  as  death 

15.  O  for  a  kindly  touch  from  that  pure  flame 


Punctuation.  61 

16.  O  what  a  rapturous  cry 

17.  Strike  oh  Muse  in  a  measure  bold 

18.  O  what  a  fair  and  miuistering  angel 

19.  A  horse  a  horse  my  kingdom  for  a  horse 

20.  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  how  noble  in  reason  how  infi- 
nite in  faculties  in  form  and  moving  how  express  and  admirable  in 
action  how  like  an  angel  in  apprehension  how  like  a  god  the  beauty 
of  the  world  the  paragon  of  animals 

State  the  punctuation  of  the  Declarative,  Interrogative, 
Exclamatory,  and  Imperative  sentences. 

All  sentences  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

The  declarative  sentence  should  close  with  a  period. 

The  interrogative  sentence  should  close  with  a  question  mark. 

The  exclamatory  sentence  must  be  considered  with  reference  to 
two  points : 

(1).     The  punctuation  of  the  interjection. 

(2).    The  punctuation  at  the  close  of  the  sentence. 

If  the  interjection  and  the  sentence  express  different  emotions,  the 
interjection  and  the  sentence  should  each  be  followed  by  an  exclama- 
tion point;  e.  g.,  Pshaivl  what  a  stupid  dolt!  If  the  interjection  and 
the  sentence  unite  pretty  closely  to  express  the  same  emotion,  the 
interjection  may  be  followed  by  a  comma  and  the  sentence  by  an 
exclamation  point;  e.  g..  Oh,  tvhat  a  rapturous  cry!  If  the  interjec- 
tion and  the  sentence  unite  very  closely  to  express  the  same  emo- 
tion, no  mark  need  be  placed  after  the  interjection,  but  the  sen- 
tence should  close  with  an  exclamation  point;  e.  g.,  Oh  for  a  kind- 
ling touch  from  that  pure  flame!  If  the  interjection  expresses  the 
emotion  and  the  sentence  is  addressed  to  the  mind  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  information,  asking  for  information,  or  influencing  the 
will,  the  interjection  sliould  be  followed  by  an  exclamation  point 
and  the  sentence  by  its  appropriate  mark;  e.  g.,  Oh!  it  hurts  mc. 
Fie !  What  have  I  to  do  with  love  f    Zounds !  bring  the  hoy  to  me. 

When  do  we  spell  the  word  o-h  and  when  0? 

Some  authorities  insist  on  using  0  in  direct  address  only,  and  oh 
always  to  express  emotion;  but  they  are  used  indiscriminately  by 
the  best  writers.     (See  the  dictionary,  nndei'  0.) 


52  A  New  English  Grammar. 

EXERCISE  8. 

Outline  of  Sentence. 

Make  an  outline  of  sentences  on  basis  of  effect  produced 
upon  the  mind,  or  use,  or  meaning,  including  the  following 
points : 

1.  Definition. 

2.  Classes. 

3.  Arrangement. 

4.  Punctuation. 

•Sentence. 

^"*'  I.    Definition. 
II.    Classes. 

1.    On  basis  of  efi'ect  produced  upon  the  mind,  or  meaning, 
or  puipose. 
(1).    Declarative. 

a.  Definition. 

b.  Classes. 

(a).    Declarative  in  form  and  meaning. 
(b).     Interrogative  in  form  and  declara- 
tive in  meaning. 

c.  Arrangement. 

d.  Punctuation. 
(2).     Interrogative. 

a.  Definition. 

b.  Classes. 

(a).     Interrogative  in  form  and  meaning. 
(b).     Declarative  in  form  and  interroga- 
tive in  meaning. 

c.  Arrangement. 

d.  Punctuation. 
(3).     Exclamatory. 

a.  Definition. 

b.  Arrangement. 

c.  Punctuation. 
(4).     Imperative. 

a.  Definition. 

b.  Classes. 

(a).    Imperative  in  form  and  meaning. 

(6).  Interrogative  in  form  and  impera- 
tive in  meaning. 

(o).  Declarative  in  form  and  imperative 
in  meaning. 

c.  Arrangement. 

d.  Punctuation. 


As  Determined  by  the  Form  of  the  Thought.  53 

CLASSES  OF  SENTENCES.  . 

EXERCISE  9. 

On  Basis  of  Form  as  Determined  by  the  Form  of  the 

Thought 

Examine  the  following  sentences  and  be  .tble  to  sui. 
principal  elements  in  the  thought  expressed  by  each,     j.- 
do  the  sentences  differ?     How  many  kinds  are  there  on  basi 
of  the  fundamental  difference? 

1.  Washington,  the  father  of  his  country,  was  ourfii-st  ( 

2.  Washington,  who  was  the  father  of  his  country,  was  our  tir 
president. 

3.  Washington  was  the  father  of  his  country,  and  he  was  our  lirst 
president. 

Name,  give  literal  meaning  of  terms,  and  define  the  classes 
of  sentences  just  illustrated.  Upon  what  basis  is  this  division 
made  ? 

On  ba.sis  of  the  form  of  the  sentence  as  determined  hy 
the  form  of  the  thouj^iit,  we  have  three  kinds  of  sentences: 
Simple,  ComiKuind,  and  Complex. 

The  word,  simple,  comes  from  the  Latin,  sine,  meaning  without,  and 
plica,  meaning  a  fold.  The  word  Hterally  means,  then,  without  a  fold. 

The  word,  compound,  comes  from  the  Latin,  com,  or  con,  meaning 
with  or  together,  and  ponere,  meaning  to  place,  to  put,  to  lay.  The 
word  hterally  means,  then,  placed  together  or  put  togetlier. 

The  word,  complex,  comes  from  the  Latin,  com,  or  con,  meaning 
with  or  together,  and  plectere,  meaning  to  twist.  The  word  literall\ 
means,  then,  twisted  together. 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  which  expresses  only  one  thought 
subject,  one  thought  ])redicate,  and  one  thought  relation;  e.  g., 
Charity  begins  at  home. 

A  compound  sentence  is  one  which  expresses  two  or  more 
coordinate,  independent  thoughts;  e.g.,  Example  appeals  not  to  our 
understanding  alone,  but  it  awakens  our  passions  likewise. 


54  A  New  English  Grammar. 

A  complex  sentence  is  one  which  expresses  one  principal 
thought  and  one  or  more  subordinate  thoughts;  e.g.,  If  you  blow  your 
neighbor's  f  re,  don't  complain  if  the  sparks  fly  in  your  face. 

EXERCISE  10. 
('lassify  the  following  sentences  on  the  basis  given  above 
and  state  the  principal  elements  of  each  thought  expressed: 

1.  William  Cullen  Bryant  was  born  at  Cummington,  Massachu- 
setts, November  3,.  1794. 

2.  The  Embargo  was  published  in  Boston  in  1809,  and  was  written 
when  Bryant  was  but  thirteen  years  old. 

3.  The  Catskill  Mountains  have  always  been  a  region  full  of 
fable. 

4.  He  used  to  tell  his  story  to  every  stranger  that  arrived  at  Mr. 
Doolittle's  hotel. 

5.  Rip's  story  was  soon  told,  for  the  whole  twenty  years  had 
been  to  him  but  as  one  night. 

6.  There  is  a  power  whose  care 

Teaches  thy  way  along  that  pathless  coast. 

7.  Vainly  the  fowler's  eye 

Might  mark  thy  distant  flight  to  do  thee  wrong. 

8.  All  that  breathe  will  share  thy  destiny. 

9.  I  have  heard  that  nothing  gives  an  author  so  great  pleasure 
as  to  have  his  works  respectfully  quoted  by  other  learned  authors. 

10.  This  pleasure  I  have  seldom  enjoyed. 

11.  Silently,  one  by  oiie,   in  the  infinite  meadows  of  heaven, 
blossomed  the  lovely  stars. 

12.  Example  appeals  not  to  our  understanding  alone,   but  it 
awakens  our  passions  likewise. 

1.3.    If  thou  didst  ever  thy  dear  father  love,  revenge  his  foul  and 
most  uncommon  murder. 

14.    There  is  no  flock,  however  watched  and  tended, 
But  one  dead  lamb  is  there! 
There  is  no  fireside,  howsoe'er  defended, 
But  has  one  vacant  chair  1 


Thought  Material.  65 

15.  Thou  lingering  star,  M-ith  lessening  ray, 

That  lov'st  to  greet  the  early  morn, 
Again  thou  usherest  in  the  clay 
My  Mary  from  my  soul  was  torn. 

16.  Lightly  and  brightly  breaks  away 

The  morning  from  her  mantle  gray. 

17.  The  strength  he  gains  is  from  the  embrace  he  gives. 

18.  Softly  sweet  in  Lydian  measures, 
Soon  he  soothed  his  soul  to  pleasures ; 
War,  he  sung,  is  toil  and  trouble ; 
Honor  but  an  empty  bubble. 

19.  If  you  blow  your  neighbor's  fire,  don't  complain  if  the  sparks 
fly  in  your  face. 

20.  Do  not  measure  other  people  in  your  half  bushel. 

21.  'Tis  an  old  maxim  in  the  schools, 
That  flattery's  the  food  of  fools ; 
Yet  now  and  then  your  men  of  wit 
Will  condescend  to  take  a  bit. 

22.  'Tis  with  our  judgments  as  our  watches :  none 
Are  just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own. 

2.3.     Love  is  the  ladder  on  which  we  climb 
To  a  likeness  with  God, 

24.  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate. 
All  but  the  page  prescribed,  their  present  state. 

25.  Faith  builds  a  bridge  across  the  gulf  of  death, 
other  good  sentences  may  be  found  in  Part  II. 


THOUGHT  MATERIAL  AND  CUSSES  OF  WORDS. 

EXERCISE  11. 
Thought  Material. 
Classify  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  words  in  the  following 
sentences.     State  how  they  are  alike  and  how  they  difFei. 
Classify  the  words  in  the  sentences  and  state  their  uses:  ■ 
1 .    JeflTereon,  the  author  of  the  constitution,  was  a  great  statesman . 


56  A  New  English  Grammak. 

2.  The  boy's  friend  ran  home  to  send  a  telegram  to  his  anxious 
mother. 

3.  He,  himself,  sent  his  boy  to  me. 

4.  It  is  I ;  be  not  afraid. 

5.  The  people  watched  them  in  silence. 

6.  I  will  go  with  you. 

7.  He  of  the  rueful  countenance  answered  without  delay. 

8.  Bread  and  milk  is  very  good  food. 

9.  The  flag  is  red,  white,  and  blue. 

10.  The  tall  boy  is  doubtless  exceedingly  helpful  to  his  mother. 

11.  The  well  is  just  thirty  feet  deep. 

12.  The  president  administers  the  government  very  well  for  the 
people. 

13.  You  should  have  come  an  hour  sooner. 

14.  The  child  read  an  hour 

15.  The  man  is  doubtless  honest. 

16.  The  house  stands  just  across  the  river. 

17.  The  blue  and  yellow  badge  belongs  to  Michigan  University. 

18.  The  man  gave  money  to  the  poor. 

19.  Minneapolis  is  a  beautiful  city. 

20.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again. 

21.  Goodness  is  commendable. 

22.  He  left  yesterday. 

23.  The  stove  is  hot. 

24.  The  smooth  glass  is  transparent. 

25.  Dry  leaves  are  brittle. 
20.  The  soft  fur  is  warm. 

27.  The  sour  cider  was  made  to-day. 

28.  The  red  sky  is  beautiful. 

29.  The  running  stream  murmurs  sweetly. 

30.  The  rushing  storm  is  frightful. 

31.  Thisbe  met  a  roaring  lion.  '* 


Thought  Material.  67 

32.  The  soul  is  that  which  thinks,  feels,  and  wills. 

33.  Who  knoweth  the  spirit  of  man  that  goeth  upward  or  the 
spirit  of  the  beast  which  goeth  downward? 

34.  The  Mississippi  is  the  longest  river  in  the  world. 

35.  There  were  giants  in  those  days. 

36.  Pshaw !  I  do  not  care  a  fig. 

37.  Now,  Barrabas  was  a  robber 

38.  Well,  what  did  he  say  ? 

39.  Now  then,  I  will  proceed. 

40.  Man,  like  the  child,  accepts  the  proffered  boon. 
And  clasps  the  bauble,  where  he  asked  the  moon. 

41.  In  the  shipwreck  of  the  state,  trifles  float  and  are  preserved; 
while  everything  solid  and  valuable  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  is  lost 
forever. 

42.  In  peace,  children  bury  their  parents ;  in  war,  parents  bury 
their  children. 

43.  If  you  wish  to  enrich  a  person,  study  not  to  increase  his  stores 
but  to  diminish  his  desires. 

44.  Words  are  the  counters  of  wise  men,  and  the  money  of  fools. 

45.  A  juggler  is  a  wit  in  things,  and  a  wit,  a  juggler  in  words. 

46.  Charity  creates  much  of  the  misery  it  relieves,  but  does  not 
relieve  all  the  misery  it  creates. 

47.  Worth  makes  the  man,  the  want  of  it  the  fellow. 

48.  Know  then  this  truth,  enough  for  man  to  know. 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below. 

49.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. 

50.  The  poor  and  the  rich,  the  weak  and  the  strong,  the  young 
and  the  old  have  one  common  Father. 

Name  and  define  the  classes  of  ideas  you  have  found  ex- 
pressed in  the  preceding  sentences.  Name  and  define  the 
classes  of  words  used  in  expressing  them.  What  is  the 
basis  of  your  division  ?  Give  the  literal  meaning  of  object, 
concrete,  abstract,  attribute,  attributive,  substantive. 


58  A  New  English  Grammar. 

Make  a  complete  outline  of  thought  material  or  ideas,  and 
words. 

By  thought  material  we  mean  the  ideas  out  of  which  the  mind 
constructs  thoughts. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  these  ideas:  ohjects  of  thought, 
attrihvites,  and  relations. 

If  we  consider  such  ideas  as  table,  cloud,  truth,  mercy,  goodness,  we 
will  see  that  they  are  ideas  about  which  the  mind  can  tliink  or  affirm 
something.     We  may  say,  Truth  is  everlasting,   The  table  is  too  high. 

These  ideas  differ  from  such  as  tall,  round,  of,  is,  and,  about  which 
the  mind  can  think  or  affirm  nothing.  "We  cannot  make  tfie  ideas, 
tall,  of,  etc.,  the  subjects  of  thoughts. 

But  the  ideas,  tall,  round,  long,  hard,  differ  from  the  ideas,  of,  is, 
and,  etc.  Such  ideas  as  tall,  round,  long,  hard,  always  belong  to,  or 
constitute  an  element  of  other  ideas.  We  must  think  a  tall  boy,  or 
long  pencil,  etc.  But  if  we  say,  a  man  of  wealth,  the  booh  on  the  t'lhh', 
the  ink  is  black,  the  idea,  of,  is  simply  the  connection  which  the  mind 
sees  between  the  ideas,  man  and  wealth;  the  idea,  on,  is  the  connec- 
tion which  the  mind  sees  between  the  ideas,  book  and  table;  the 
idea,  is,  is  simply  the  relation  which  the  mind  sees  between  the 
thought  subject  and  the  thought  predicate.  These  ideas  do  not 
belong  to  other  ideas;  the  idea,  on,  belongs  neither  to  book  nor  table; 
it  is  simply  the  relation  of  the  one  to  the  other. 

The  word,  object,  comes  from  the  Latin,  ob,  meaning  against,  and 
jacere,  meaning  to  throw.  Literally,  then,  the  word  means  that 
which  is  thrown  against. 

An  object  of  thought  is  an  idea  about  which  the  mind  can 
affirm  something.  We  must  not  think  that  it  is  always  an  objective 
thing,  or  that  it  can  be  known  only  through  the  senses.  The  ideas, 
soul,  spirit,  Jieaven,  thought,  brightness,  faith,  are  objects  of  thought,  just 
as  much  as  the  ideas,  knife,  book,  river,  tree,  are. 

Objects  of  thought  are  again  divided  into  two  classes :  abstract 
and  concrete. 

The  word,  abstract,  conies  from  the  Latin,  ah,  meaning  from,  and 
trahere,  meaning  to  draw.  Literally,  then,  the  word  means  that 
which  is  drawn  from. 


Thought  ]\Iaterial.  59 

An  abstract  object  of  thougiit  is  one  which  was  first  known 
as  an  attribute.  The  mind  has  thought  it  away  from  the  object  in 
which  it  was  found  and  has  made  an  object  of  thought  out  of  it ;  e.  g., 
honesty,  charity,  brightness. 

The  word,  concrete,  comes  from  the  Latin,  con,  meaning  witli  or 
together,  and  crescere,  meaning  to  grow.  Literally,  then,  the  word 
means  to  grow  together. 

A  concrete  object  of  thougiit  is  an  object  of  thought  which 
was  first  known  by  its  attributes ;  e.  g.,  sun,  flower,  river,  spirit,  air, 
thought. 

The  word,  attribute,  comes  from  the  Latin,  ad,  meaning  to  or  upon, 
and  tribuere,  meaning  to  bestow.  Literally,  then,  the  word  means 
that  which  is  bestowed  upon  a  thing. 

An  attribute  is  a  mark  or  a  characteristic  by  which  we  know 
another  idea ;  e.  g.,  broad,  deep,  soft,  white. 

Attributes  may  be  divided  into  four  classes:  qualities, 
actions,  conditions,  and  relations. 

An  attribute  of  quality  is  a  mark  or  characteristic  which  re- 
mains permanent  in  the  idea  to  w-hicli  it  belongs;  e.  g.,  Jong  road, 
golden  hair,  round  pencil,  etc. 

An  attribute  of  action  is  an  attribute  which  distinguishes  the 
idea  to  which  it  belongs  by  what  it  does ;  e.  g.,  babbling  brook,  prat- 
tling child,  pacing  horse.  The  bird  sings,  Alice  studies. 

An  attribute  of  condition  is  an  attribute  which  distinguishes 
the  idea  to  whicli  it  belongs  by  its  relation  to  itself  at  some  other 
time;  e.  g.,  hot  stove,  dead  grass,  old  hat. 

An  attribute  of  relation  is  an  attribute  which  distinguishes 
the  idea  to  which  it  belongs  by  its  connection  with  some  other  idea; 
e.  g.,  the  boy  on  tJie  front  seat,  man  in  tlie  moon,  the  house  which  was 
sold  last  tveek. 

The  word,  relation,  comes  from  the  Latin,  re,  meaning  again,  back, 
and /err^,  meaning  to  bring,  to  bear,  and  ion,  meaning  the  act  of. 
Literally,  then,  the  word  means  the  act  of  bearing  back. 

An  idea  of  relation  is  the  connection  which  the  mind  sees  to 
exist  between  ideas ;  e.  g.,  in,  of,  but,  was,  etc. 

Ideas  of  relation  are  of  two  kinds  :  coordinate  and  subor- 
dinate. 


60  A  New  English  Grammar.  ' 

The  word,  coordinate,  comes  from  the  Latin,  co  or  con  meaning 
with  or  together,  and  ordinare,  meaning  to  regulate.  Literally  the 
word  means,  then,  to  regulate  with  or  together. 

A  coordinate  relation  is  the  idea  of  relation  which  the  mind 
sees  to  exist  between  ideas  or  thoughts  of  equal  rank;  e.  g..  Bread 
and  milk  is  good  food,  How  wonderful  is  sleep,  Charity  creates  much 
of  the  misery  it  relieves,  hut  does  not  relieve  all  the  misery  it  creates. 

The  word  subordinate,  comes  from  the  Latin,  sub,  meaning  under, 
and  ordinare,  meaning  to  set  in  order,  to  arrange.  Literally,  then, 
the  word  means  to  arrange  or  to  set  in  order  under. 

A  subordinate  relation  is  that  idea  of  relation  which  the  mind 
sees  to  exist  between  ideas  or  thoughts  of  unequal  rank ;  e.  g.,  Oliver 
was  on  his  way /ro?n  Ludgate  ^oCornhill,  it;/i,ewhemetagroup  0/ boot- 
blacks, "  If  it  feed  nothing  else,"  said  Shylock,  "  it  will  feed  my  re- 
venge,"   The  minstrel,  who  was  infirm  and  old,  was  a  great  favorite. 

Thought  Material. 
I.    Definition. 
II.     Classes. 

1.  Objects  of  thought. 

(1).     Abstract. 
(2).     Concrete. 

2.  Attributes. 

(1).    Quality. 
(2).     Action. 
(3).     Condition. 
(4).     Relation. 

3.  Relations. 

(1).    Coordinate. 

a.  Between  ideas  of  equal  rank;  e.g..  The 

flag  is  red,  white,  and  blue. 

b.  Between  thoughts  of  equal  rank;  e.g.. 

Who  knoweth  the  spirit  of  man 
that  goeth  upward  or  the  spirit  of 
the  beast  which  goeth  downward? 
(2).     Subordinate. 

a.  Between  ideas  of  unequal  rank;  e.g., 

Lincoln,  the  martyr  to  the  cause  of 
freedom,  -'as  a  good  president. 

b.  Between  thougnts  of  unequal  rank ;  e.  g., 

The  soul  is  that  tvhich  thinks,  feels, 

and  wills, 

Note.— Perhaps  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  words,  if  they  express  any  ideas, 
pshaw,  pooh,  alas,  ah,  and  the  like,  are  not  included  in  the  above  classification. 
These  are  not  very  important  in  the  construction  of  judgments.  Perhaps  they  are 
attributes  of  relation. 


Words.  61 

EXERCISE  12. 

Words. 

A  ■word  is  a  symbol  which  expresses  an  idea;  e.  g.,  toy,  so,  egg. 

Since  we  have  three  great  classes  of  ideas,  we  must  have 
three  great  classes  of  words,  corresponding  to  them.  They  are 
suhstantive  words,  attributive  words,  and  relation  words. 

The  word,  substantive,  comes  from  the  Latin,  sub,  meaning  under, 
stare,  meaning  to  stand,  and  live,  meaning  relating  to.  Literally, 
then,  the  word  means  relating  to  that  which  stands  under. 

A  substantive  word  is  a  word  which  expresses  an  object  of 
thought;  e.  g.,  desert,  gold,  valley,  he,  they. 

On  basis  of  the  manner  in  which  they  express  objects 
of  thought,  substantive  words  are  divided  into  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns. 

A  noun  is  a  substantive  word  which  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  by  naming  it;  e.  g.,  Harry,  town,  stream. 

A  pronoun  is  a  substantive  word  which  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  without  naming  it;  c.  g.,  it,  we. 

The  word,  attributive,  comes  from  the  Latin,  at  or  ad,  meaning  to 
or  upon,  trihuere,  meaning  to  bestow,  and  iive,  meaning  relating  to. 
Literally,  then,  the  word  means  relating  to  that  which  is  bestowed 
upon  a  thing. 

An  attributive  word  is  a  word  which  expresses  an  attribute; 
e.g.,  long  way,  )veary  traveler. 

There  are  three  classes  of  attributive  words :  adjectives,  ad- 
verbs, and  attributive  verlxs. 

An  adjective  is  an  attributive  word  which  expresses  an  attribute 
of  an  object  of  thought  without  asserting  it;  e.g.,  small  boy.  The 
apple  is  red. 

An  adverb  is  an  attributive  word  which  expresses  an  attribute  of 
an  attribute  or  of  a  relation;  e.  g.,  swiftly,  sweetly,  soundly. 

An  attributive  verli  s  an  attributive  word  which  expresses  an 
attribute  of  an  object  of  thought  and  asserts  it;  e.  g.,  walked,  laughed, 
told. 

A  relation  word  is  a  word  which  expresses  an  idea  of  relation ; 
e.  g.,  arc,  to,  and. 


62  A  New  English  Grammar. 

On  basis  of  the  kinds  of  ideas  of  relation  to  be  expressed, 
there  are  three  kinds  of  relation  words;  viz.,  conjunctions, 
prepositions,  and  pure  verbs. 

A  conjunction  is  a  relation  word  which  expresses  a  relation  be- 
tween coordinate  ideas  or  between  thoughts;  e.  s-,  Yellow  and  blue 
is  a  pretty  combination,  He  desired  to  pray  but  it  was  denied  him, 
This  is  the  place /or  I  know  the  house. 

A  preposition  is  a  relation  word  which  expresses  a  relation  be- 
tween ideas  of  unequal  rank;  e.g.,  Star  0/ the  east,  Visions  in  the 
night. 

A  pure  verb  is  a  relation  word  which  expresses  the  relation  be- 
tween thought  subject  and  thought  predicate  only. 

Note.— The  only  pure  verb  in  the  English  language  is  the  verb  be  in  all  its  forms. 
A  few  other  verbs  are  sometimes  used  as  pure  verbs.   (See  Whitney,  p.  158.) 

Words. 

I.     Definition. 
II.    Classes. 

1.  Substantive. 

(1).    Noun. 
(2).    Pronoun. 

2.  Attributive. 

(1).    Adjective. 

(2).     Adverb. 

(3).     Attributive  verb 

3.  Relation  words. 

(1).     Conjunction. 
(2).     Preposition. 
(3).     Pure  verb. 

Note.— Perhaps  the  words,  pshnw,  pooh,  alas,  ah,  as  well  as  such  words  as  there 
in  the  sentence,  There  were  giants  in  those  days,  or  ircll  in  the  sentence,  Well,  did  you 
volef  would  not  be  included  in  the  above  classification.  They  are  not  very  import- 
ant in  the  expression  of  the  thought.  The  first,  may  be  called  interjections  or  feel- 
ing words;  the  last,  form  words  or  expletives. 

An  interjection  or  feeling-  word  is  a  word  which  expresses 
an  idea  of  feeling  or  emotion  ;  e.  g..  Oh,  alas. 

A  form  word  or  expletive  is  a  word  which  does  not  help  to 
express  the  thought,  but  changes  the  arrangement  of  the  sentence 
or  in  some  way  adds  to  its  form;  e.g..  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the 
pathless  wood. 


Modifiers.  63 

MODIFIERS. 

EXERCISE  13. 

Explain  tlje  use  of  each  italicized  expression  in  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  James,  the  maso7i,  is  ill. 

2.  Man/s  book  is  soiled. 

.3.  The  great  plains  are  good  grazing  districts. 

4.  The  ichite  snow  hurts  my  eye». 

5.  He  sold  Henry  a  booh. 

6.  The  work  was  neatly  done. 

7.  The  child  was  good  in  school. 

8.  The  boy  was  tardy  yesterday. 

9.  He  comes  because  he  is  entertained. 

10.  The  man  is  charitable  in  his  way. 

1 1 .  The  apple  is  very  sweet. 

12.  The  girl  is  often  tardy. 

13.  The  stranger  is  charitable,  tlad  Itc  may  receive  praise. 

14.  The  teacher  is  strict  with  his  pupils. 

15.  The  boy  went  along  with  his  mother. 

16.  The  judge  is  generous  except  ivitJi  his  enemies. 

17.  The  minister  had  lately  come  from  the  East. 

18.  The  cistern  had  been  filled //-om  the  spout. 

19.  The  girl  is  not  good,  even  if  she  is  entertained. 

20.  The  garden  was  prepared  icith  the  spade. 

21.  It  I?,  probably  true. 

22.  The  story  is  certainly  interesting  and  perhaps  true. 

23.  He  traded  with  an  Indian. 

24.  He  built  the  house  with  his  aim  money. 

25.  The  demonstration  is  necessarily  true. 

26.  The  ground  is  not  wet. 

27.  Cleveland  is  at  this  time  president. 


64  A  New  English  Grammar. 

28.  When  the  shadows  of  evening  fall,  the  sunbeams  fly  away. 

29.  We  stood  upon  the  ragged  rocks 
Whf'.n  the  long  day  was  nearly  done. 

30.  Make  hay  ivhile  the  sun  shines. 

31.  Some  must  watch  tohile  others  weep. 

32.  The  buttercup  comes  early  in  the  spring, 

33.  The  party  walked  home. 

34.  The  river  is  .a  mile  broad. 

35.  You  should  have  come  an  hour  eooneT. 

36.  The  bird  built  her  nest  six  inches  above  the  door. 

Classify,  name,  and  define  the  expreseions  considered  in 
the  preceding  sentences.  What  is  the  basis  of  your  division  ? 
Make  a  complete  outline  of  modifiers. 

A  modifier  is  a  word  or  group  of  words  which  expresses  an  id^a 
that  changes  some  other  idea  and  which  is  not  asserted  of  that 
other  idea;  e.  g.,  The  tall  tree  is  a  pine.  The  word,  "  tall,"  expresses 
an  idea  which  changes  the  idea,  tree,  and  the  idea,  tall,  is  not  asserted 
of  the  idea,  t7ee. 

Modifiers  always  express  objects  of  thought  or  attributes ;  hence, 
we  have  substantive  modifiers  and  attributive  modifiers.  • 

A  sub.stantive  modifier  is  a  modifier  which  expresses  an  object 
of  thought ;  e.  g.,  James  sold  his  hone. 

An  attributive  modiflei?  is  a  modifier  which  expresses  an  attri- 
bute ;  e.  g..  Large  crowds  attended  the  meetings. 

Substantive  modifiers  are  divided  into  the  following  classes :  ap- 
positive,  possessive,  direct  objective,  indirect  objective, 
adverbial  objective. 

An  appositive  modifier  is  a  substantive  modifier  which  ex- 
presses the  same  object  of  thought  as  the  word  which  it  modifies; 
e.  g.,  My  father,  the  minister,  io  well  known  here. 

A  possessive  modifier  is  a  substantive  modifier  which  changes 
the  meaning  of  the  word  wliich  it  modifies  by  denoting  possession; 
e.  g.,  The  king's  head  was  in  danger. 


Modifiers.  65 

A  direct  objective  modifier  is  a  substantive  modifier  the  object 
of  thought  expressed  by  which,  is  directly  affected  by  the  attribute 
expressed  by  the  word  which  it  modifies ;  e.  g.,  My  son  loves  money. 

An  indirect  objective  modifier  is  a  substantive  modifier  the 
object  of  thought  expressed  by  which,  is  indirectly  affected  by  the 
attribute  expressed  by  the  word  which  it  modifies ;  e,  g.,  My  son, 
take  your  father  the  book. 

An  adverbial  objective  modifier  is  a  substantive  modifier 
which  expresses  an  adverbial  idea;,  e.  g.,  We  talked  tivo  hours,. 

Attributive  modifiers  are  divided  into  the  following  classes:  ad- 
jective and  adverbial. 

An  adjective  modifier  is  an  attributive  modifier  which  ex- 
presses an  unasserted  attribute  of  an  object  of  thought ;  e.  g..  The 
melancholy  days  have  come. 

An  advei'bial  modifier  is  an  attributive  modifier  which  ex- 
presses an  attribute  of  an  attribute  or  of  a  relation  ;  e.  g.,  They  were 
irarmly  received.     She  has  always  been  kind. 

The  ideas  which  may  be  expressed  by  the  adverbial  modifier  are 
time,  place,  cause,  manner,  degree,  frequency,  purpose,  accompani- 
ment, exclusion,  direction,  source,  concession,  doubt,  necessity,  ne- 
gation, certainty,  reason,  condition,  etc.  These  may  be  found  illus- 
trated and  should  be  worked  out  from  the  sentences  above. 

Modifiers. 

1.     Definition. 
II.    Classes. 

1.  Substantive. 

(1).     Definition. 
(2).     Classes. 

a.     Appositive. 

/'.      Possessive. 

c.  Direct  Objective. 

d.  Indirect  Objective. 

e.  Adverbial  Objective. 

2.  Attributive. 

1).     Definition. 
(2).  .Classes. 

a.     Adjective. 
/;.    Adverbial. 


66  A  New  English  Grammar. 

PREDICATES. 

EXERCISE  14. 

State  the  use  of  each  italicized  expression  in  the  following : 

1.  Corwin  was  an  excellent  advocate. 

2.  The  stranger  listened  eagerly  to  the  story. 

3.  The  ]^^xm€tl-Schoo{  is  a  s^jQlJor  teachers. 

4.  The  boys  were  haxuisaijie  and  ing/niy. 

5.  Languages  have  long,  almost  always  indeed,  been  a  subject  of 
study. 

6.  But  one  may  be  an  accomplished  linguist,  reading  and  speaking 
many  tongues,  without  being  an  adept  in  the  science  of  language. 

7.  Professor  Max  Miiller,  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Pro- 
fessor William  Dwight  Whitney,  of  Yale,  are  the  great  authorities  on 
the  science  of  language. 

8.  Is  the  pen  mightier  thau.  the  sword  ? 

9.  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 
10.     It  takes  two  to  quarrel. 

What  differences  have  you  noticed  in  the  predicates  of 
the  preceding  sentences?  Name  and  define  the  classes. 
Upon  what  basis  have  you  divided  them  ? 

The  predicate  is  that  part  of  the  sentence  which  expresses  the 
thought  predicate  ;  e.  g..  The  snow  falls. 

On  basis  of  form,  predicates  are  conibiiied  and  uncom- 
bined. 

A  <M)iiiT)iiied  predicate  is  a  predicate  in  which  the  principal 
part  of  the  thought  predicate  and  the  thought  relation  are  expressed 
by  one  word;  e.  g.,  Tom  loves  his  mother.  In  this  example,  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  thought  predicate  and  the  thought  relation  are  ex- 
pressed by  the  word,  "  loves." 

An  iinconibined  predicate  is  a  predicate  in  which  the  principal 
part  of  the  thought  predicate  and  the  thought  relation  are  expressed 
in  different  words;  e.g.,  The  earthquake  was  horrible  in  this  region. 


Substantive  Words  in  Simple  Sentence.  67 

In  this  example,  the  principal  part  of  the  thought  predicate  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  word,  "  horrible,"  and  the  thought  relation  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  word,  "  was." 

On  basis  of  idea  expressed  or  meaning-,  predicates  are  sub- 
stantive or  attributive. 

A  substantive  predicate  is  a  predicate  which  expresses  an 
object  of  thought;  e.  g.,  Time  is  money. 

An  attributive  predicate  is  a  predicate  which  expresses  an 
attribute;  e.  g.,  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 

Predicates. 

I.    Definition. 
II.    Classes. 

1.  On  basis  of  form. 

(1).     Combined. 
(2).     Uncombined. 

2.  On  basis  of  idea  expressed  or  meaning. 

(1).    Substantive. 
(2).    Attributive. 


THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 

EXERCISE  15. 

Substantive  Words  in  Simple  Sentence. 

State  the  uses  of  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences.   Classify  the  sentences  and  the  italicized  words: 

1.  Washington,  the  &rst  president  of  the  United  States,  was  a  great 
statesman. 

2.  The  child's  anxious  teacher  sent  the  hoy  home  to  hi.s  mother. 
'.J.     Gad,  a  troop  shall  overtake  him. 

4.  He,  himself,  wrote  me  the  note. 

5.  It  is  T. 

6.  The  teacher  saw  them  studying. 

7.  Without  me,  ye  can  do  nothing. 


68  A  New  English  Grammar. 

8.  I  alone  am  left  to  tell  the  story, 

9.  Yellow  and  blue  makes^a  pretty  badge. 

10.  The  flower  is  red  and  white. 

11.  I,  myself,  will  assist  you. 

12.  A  righteous  man  needs  no  monument. 

13.  God  does  not  expect  us  to  have  charity  for  dn. 

14.  Dyed  whiskers  are  like  hypocrisy. 

15.  They  deceive  only  one  person. 

EXERCISE  16. 

Noun  and  Pronoun  in  Simple  Sentence. 

State  all  the  uses  of  the  noun  and  pronoun  in  the  simple 
sentence  and  state  all  the  modifiers  which  may  belong  to 
them. 

In  the  simple  sentence,  the  noun  may  be  used  as  subject,  predi- 
cate, appositive,  possessive,  direct  objective,  indirect  objective,  or 
adverbial  objective  modifier,  principal  word  of  a  prepositional 
phrase,  and  absolutely  or  independently. 

Note.— These  points  together  with  all  that  follow,  are  illustrated  in  the  sen- 
tences. The  teacher  should  have  the  pupil  think  out  these  results  from  the  sen- 
tences. 

In  the  simple  sentence,  the  noun  may  have  the  following  modi- 
fiers :  appositive,  possessive,  limiting  adjective  modifier,  descriptive 
adjective  modifier. 

A  limiting-  adjective  iiioditler  is  an  adjective  modifier,  the 
chief  purpose  of  which  is  to  narrow  the  meaning  or  application  of 
the  word  it  modifies ;  e.  g^,  These  men  are  foreigners. 

A  descriptive  adjective  modifier  is  an  adjective  modifier,  the 
chief  purpose  of  which  is  to  make  prominent  the  attribute  which 
it  expresses;  e.  g.,  The  blue  sky  is  beautiful. 

The  uses  of  the  pronoun  in  the  simple  sentence  are  the  same  as 
those  of  the  noun,  except  that  it  is  not  used  as  an  adverbial  object- 
ive modifier. 

The  modifiers  of  the  pronoun  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  noun, 
except  that  it  does  not  take  the  possessive  modifier. 


Relation  Words  in  Simple  Sentence.  69 

EXERCISE  17. 

Attributive  Words  in  Simple  Sentence. 

Classify  and  state  the  use  of  each  italicized  word  in  the 

following  sentences.     Classify  the  sentences  : 

1.  The  large  horse  is  doubtless  exceedingly  usefid  to  his  owner. 

~  2.  The  house  stands  jhs<  across  the  river. 

3.  The  river  is  a  mile  broad. 

4.  The  honest  boy  very  promptly  gave  the  man  his  money. 

5.  The  lesson  should  have  been  prepared  an  hour  sooner. 

6.  The  river  fell  six  inches. 

State  all  the  uses  and  modifiers  which  attributive  words 
may  have  in  the  simple  sentence.  Illustrate  each  by  one 
example. 

The  attributive  verb  is  used  in  the  simple  sentence  to  form  the 
principal  part  of  the  predicate  and  to  express  the  thought  relation. 

The  following  modifiers  may  belong  to  the  attributive  verb  in  the 
simple  sentence:  adverbial,  direct  objective,  indirect  objective,  and 
adverbial  objective. 

The  adjective  may  be  used  in  the  simple  sentence  as  the  princi- 
pal part  of  the  uncombined  attributive  predicate  and  as  a  modifier 
of  a  substantive  word. 

An  adjective  may  take  an  adverbial  modifier,  an  indirect  objective 
modifier,  and  an  adverbial  objective  modifier. 

An  adverb  may  be  used  in  the  simple  sentence  to  modify  a  pure 
verb,  an  attributive  verb,  an  adjective,  an  adverb,  or  a  preposition. 

An  adverb  in  the  simple  sentence  may  take  an  adverbial  modifier 
and  an  adverbial  objective  modifier.     (See  Whitney,  Par.  390.) 

EXERCISE  18. 
Relation  Words  in  Simple  Sentence. 

State  the  use  of  each  italicized  expression  in  the  following 
sentences  and  classify  the  sentences  : 

1.  You  are  doubtlesn  right. 

2.  The  bird  built  her  nast  just  above  the  door. 


"0  A  New  English  Grammar. 

3.  The  boy  w  devoted  to  his  mother. 

4.  The  poet  and  scholar  is  dead. 

o.    The  arrow  struck  two  inches  below  the  center. 

State  all  the  uses  and  modifiers  of  relation  words  in  the 
simple  sentence.     Give  one  example  of  each. 

The  pure  verb  has  only  one  use;  viz.,  to  show  the  relation  be- 
tween thought  subject  and  thought  predicate,  and  it  has  only  one 
modifier— the  adverbial. 

The  preposition  may  be  used  as  the  relation  word  of  a  preposi- 
tional phr?se  in  the  simple  sentence,  or  it  may  be  used  to  show  the 
relation  between  an  indirect  object  and  the  attribute  which  indi- 
rectly affects  it.  It  may  take  an  adverbial  modifier  and  an  adverbial 
objective  modifier. 

The  object  of  thought  expressed  by  the  indirect  objective  modifier 
is  the  indirect  object;  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  the 
direct  objective  modifier  is  the  direct  object. 

The  conjunction  in  the  simple  sentence  has  just  one  use;  viz., 
to  express  the  relation  between  ideas  of  equal  rank. 

EXERCISE  19. 

Form  and  Feeling  Words  in  Simple  Sentence. 

State  the  use  of  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  and 
classify  the  sentences  : 

1.  Poo/i .' I  do  not  believe  it. 

2.  Alas !  what  mortal  terror  we  are  in. 

3.  Well,  did  you  vote  ? 

4.  Now,  I  do  not  believe  a  word  of  it. 

5.  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods. 

6.  There  have  always  been  people  who  loved  to  tell  bad  news. 

In  addition  to  the  words  given  above,  we  may  have  used  in  the 
simple  sentence  feeling  words  or  interjections  and  form  words  or 
expletives. 


The  Phrask.  71 

EXERCISE  20. 
The  Phrase. 

Nov  we  have  worked  out  all  the  kind;?  of  words  used  in  the  sim- 
ple sentence,  the  uses  of  these  words,  and  the  niodiliers  which  oai  h 
may  take.  Sometimes  a  number  of  words  unite  to  express  a  single 
idea,  or  the  group  of  words  has  the  use  of  a  single  word  ;  e.  g.,  The 
"speaker  stood  o»  the  platfonn.  In  this  sentence,  the  group  of  words. 
"  on  the  platform,"  expresses  the  idea  of  place.  My  brother  arrivcil 
in  ihf  evening.  In  this  example,  the  group  of  words,  ''  in  the  even- 
ing," expresses  the  idea  of  time.  A  man  of  uealth  may  do  much 
good.  The  words,  "of  wealth,"  express  one  idea  and  the  expres- 
sion might  be  changed  to,  -I  vealthi/  man  mai/  do  much  <jooiJ. 

State  the  use  of  each  italicized  expression  in  the  following. 
Classify  the  expressions  on  as  many  diti'eront  hases  as  you 
are  ahle  to  discover  by  noting  important  diiVorences  among 
the  expressions.    Name  and  define  each  class  of  expressions: 

1.    The  State  University  o/'Jfjjimw/d  is  located  in  the  citi/  of  Min- 
neapolis. 
-.     He  has  learned  to  love  and  obey  his  teacher. 
o.    The  boy  to  be  chosen  must  be  intelligent  to  be  ustful. 

4.  He  lives  to  assist  his  friends. 

5.  To  lie  willingh/  is  base. 

6.  Walking  the  race  was  tiresome  to  tlie  man  wearing  the  blue  coat. 

7.  We  could  not  cross,  being  unable  to  ford  the  river. 

8.  Being  a  member  of  the  regimoit,  he  passed  unchallenged. 

9.  The  city  of  large  dimensions  sends  the  most  goods  to  foreign 
countries. 

10.  Out  of  sight  is  out  of  mind. 

11.  Civsar  ??i/^/i/  have  been  king. 

.\  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  not  having  a  subject,  predicate,  and 
copula,  and  used  in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  a  single  word. 

On  basis  of  oliaraotovistie  Avord,  i>iirases  arc  divided  into  four 
classes :  prepositimial,  infinitive,  partii-ipfal,  and  verbal. 


72  A  New  English  Gkammar. 

A  prepositional  phrase  is  a  phrase  whose  characteristic  word 
is  a  preposition  ;  e.  g.,  She  loves  to  ride  early  in  the  morning. 

An  infinitive  phrase  is  a  phrase  whose  characteristic  word  is  an 
infinitive;  e.  g.,   To  love  the  truth  will  make  one  happy. 

A  pai'tioipial  phrase  is  a  phrase  whose  characteristix;  word  is  a 
participle  ;  e.  g.,  Holding  Jds  light  high  above  his  head,  he  peered  into 
the  darkness. 

A  verhal  phrase  is  a  phrase  whose  characteristic  word  is  a  verb ; 
e.  g.,  The  child  mighl  have  been  lost  in  the  storm. 

On  basis  of  form,  phrases  are  simple,  complex,  and  com- 
pound. 

A  simple  phrase  is  a  single  phrase  ;  e.  g.,  The  sun  shines  in  my 

eyes. 

A  complex  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  has  in  it  two  or  more 
phrases^one  principal  and  the  others  subordinate;  e.  g.,  To  think 
no  evil  in  one's  heart  is  a  difficult  thing. 

A  compound  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  is  made  up  of  two  or 
more  phrases  of  equal  rank;  e.  g.,  Children  should  be  taught  to  love 
and  to  obey  God. 

On  basis  of  use,  phrases  are  substantive  and  attributive. 

A  substantive  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  is  used  in  the  sentence  • 
with  the  value  of  a  substantive  word  ;  e.  g.,    To  go  to  church  every 
Sunday  is  a  small  part  of  our  christian  duty. 

An  attributive  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the  value  of  an  attributive  word;  e.  g.,  Abraham  was  called  a 
friend  of  God. 

Attributive  phrases  may  be  adjective  or  adverbial. 

An  adjective  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the  value  of  an  adjective  ;  e.  g.,  Truth  crushed  to  earth  will  rise 
again. 

An  adverbial  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  is  ustd  in  the  sentence 
with  the  value  of  an  adverb ;  e.  g.,  Remember  now  thy  Creator,  in 
the  days  of  thy  yoidh. 


Simple  Sentence  with  Compound  Element.  78 

EXERCISE  21. 
Simple  Sentence  with  Compound  Element. 

State  whether  or  not  the  conjunction,  in  the  following 
sentences,  expresses  the  relation  between  coordinate  thoughts, 
or  between  coordinate  parts  of  the  same  thought : 
~1.    Mary  learns  easily  but  she  forgets  soon. 

2.    The  cow  and  calf  are  together. 

8.     Pinks  and  roses  are  fragrant. 

4.    That  is  a  red  and  white  flower. 

o.     Birds  chirp  and  sing. 

6.  Five  and  four  are  nine. 

7.  You  and  I  are  going. 

8.  The  great  statesman  and  orator  is  dead. 

9.  The  moon  and  stars  are  shining. 

10.    The  scholar  and  poet  was  also  a  christian  and  patriot. 

State  the  difference  between  sentences  having  different  uses 
of  the  conjunction.  Define  each  kind  of  sentence  illustrated 
in  the  preceding  sentences.  *Make  an  outline  of  the  simple 
sentence. 

Grammarians  have  not  distinguished  clearly  between  a  simple 
sentence  witli  a  compound  element  and  an  abridged  com- 
pound sentence.  They  would  not  distinguish  between  the  sen- 
tences: Plnlcs  and  rosea  are  fragrant,  and  Five  and  four  are  nine.  They 
would  call  each  a  simple  sentence  with  a  compound  element.  There 
is  a  clear  distinction,  however,  between  the  two.  The  first  one  means, 
Pinks  are  fragrant  and  roses  are  fragrant.  There  are  two  assertions 
made,  one  of  the  idea,  pinks,  and  one  of  the  idea,  roses.  We  do  not 
have  to  think  the  two  ideas  together  in  order  to  assert  the  idea,/ra- 
grant,  of  them.    It  is,  therefore,  an  abridged  compound  sentence. 

The  second  one  cannot  be  expanded  in  that  way.  We  cannot  as- 
sert the  idea,  nine,  of  the  ideas,  five  and  four,  taken  separately,  saying, 

■■■•  The  teacher  .should  here  have  the  pupils  work  out  an  outline  of  the  simple 
sentence,  similar  to  that  given  under  "  Modifiers." 


76  A  New  English  Grammar. 

A  subordinate  or  dopoiulent  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used 
in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  a  single  word;  e.  g.,  The  subject 
must  obey  his  prince,  because  God  commands  it,  and  human  laivs  re- 
quire it. 

Sul)ordinate  or  dependent  clauses  are  of  two  kinds:  sub- 
stantive and  attributive. 

A  substantive  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the  value  of  a  substantive  word;  e.  g.,  Thou  knowest  that  1 
love  thee. 

An  attributive  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the*value  of  an  attributive  word ;  e.g.,  Who  woidd  he  free,  them- 
selves must  strike  the  blow. 

Attributive  clauses  are  of  two  kinds :  adjective  and  adverbial. 

An  adjective  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the  value  of  an  adjective;  e.  g., 

Mortals  that  woidd  follow  me, 
Love  virtue;  she  alone  is  free. 

An  adverbial  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the  value  of  an  adverb;  e.  g., 

Or  if  Virtue  feeble  were, 

Heav'n  itself  wpuld 'stoop  to  her. 

EXERCISE  24. 

Relations  Between  Thoughts  Expressed  by  the  Mem- 
bers of  Compound  Sentences. 

Point  out  the  clauses  and  conjunctions  in  the  following, 
and  try  to  state  the  kind  of  relation  expressed  by  each  con- 
junction : 

1.  I  awoke  and  I  got  up  at  once. 

2.  The  sun  was  up,  but  it  was  hidden  behind  the  clouds. 

3.  The  bird  was  shot  or  some  one  had  struck  it. 

4.  It  is  my  duty,  therefore  I  must  do  it. 

5.  A  king  must  win  or  he  must  forfeit  his  crown  forever. 

6.  A  fool  speaks  all  his  mind,  but  a  wise  man  reserves  something 
until  hereafter. 


Relations  BetweenCooedinate  Thoughts.  77 

7.  It  is  not  snowing,  nor  is  it  raining. 

8.  Some  are  born  great ;  some  achieve  greatness ;   and  others 
have  greatness  thrust  upon  them. 

9.  The  man  dies  but  his  memory  lives. 

10.  The  man  pays  his  debts  promptly,  therefore  he  is  honest. 

11.  Be  temperate  in  youth  or  you  will  have  to  be  abstinent  in 
old  age. 

12.  Of  thy  unspoken  word  thou  art  master ;  thy  spoken  word  is 
master  of  thee. 

13.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath,  but  grievous  words  stir 
up  strife. 

14.  There  was  a  gay  maiden  lived  down  by  the  mill — 

Ferry  me  over  the   ferry— 
Her  hair  was  as  bright  as  the  waves  of  a  rill, 
When  the  sun  on  the  brink  of  his  setting  stands  still, 

Her  lips  were  as  full  as  a  cherry. 

15.  This  world  is  all  a  fleeting  show. 

For  man's  illusion  given; 
The  smiles  of  joy,  the  tears  of  woe,  , 

Deceitful  shine,  deceitful  flow — 

There's  nothing  true  but  heaven ! 

16.  The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 

And  snowy  summits  old  in  story; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes. 
And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. 

17.  And  now  there  came  both  mist  and  snow. 
And  it  grew  wondrous  cold. 

And  ice  mast-high  came  floating  by. 
As  green  as  emerald. 

18.  The  day  is  done;  and  slowly  from  the  scene 
The  stooping  sun  uj)gathers  his  spent  shafts, 
And  puts  them  back  into  his  golden  quiver. 

19.  Night  dropped  her  sable  curtain  down,  and  pinned  it  with  a 
star. 

20.  A  blind  man  is  a  poor  man,  and  blind  a  poor  man  is;  for  the 
former  seeth  no  man,  and  the  latter  no  man  sees. 


76  A  New  English  Geammab. 

A  subordinate  or  dopciiclent  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used 
in  the  sentence  with  the  value  of  a  single  word;  e.  g.,  The  subject 
must  obey  his  |)rince,  became  God  commands  it,  and  human  laws  re- 
quire it. 

Subordinate  or  dependent  clauses  are  of  two  kinds:  sub- 
stantive and  attributive. 

A  substantive  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the  value  of  a  substantive  word;  e.  g.,  Thou  knowest  that  1 
lave  thee. 

An  attribvitive  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the'value  of  an  attributive  word;  e.g.,  Who  woidd  be  free,  them- 
selves must  strike  the  blow. 

Attributive  clauses  are  of  two  kinds:  adjective  and  adverbial. 

An  adjective  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the  value  of  an  adjective;  e.  g., 

Mortals  that  vmdd  follow  me, 
Love  virtue;  she  alone  is  free. 

An  adverbial  clause  is  a  clause  which  is  used  in  the  sentence 
with  the  value  of  an  adverb ;  e.  g., 

Or  if  Virtue  feeble  were, 

Heav'n  itself  w^uld 'stoop  to  her. 

EXERCISE  24. 

Relations  Between  Thoughts  Expressed  by  the  Mem- 
bers of  Compound  Sentences. 

Point  out  the  clauses  and  conjunctions  in  the  following, 
and  try  to  state  the  kind  of  relation  expressed  by  each  con- 
junction : 

1.  I  awoke  and  I  got  up  at  once. 

2.  The  sun  was  up,  but  it  was  hidden  behind  the  clouds. 
8.    The  bird  was  shot  or  some  one  had  struck  it. 

4.  It  is  my  duty,  therefore  I  must  do  it. 

5.  A  king  must  win  or  he  must  forfeit  his  crown  forever. 

6.  A  fool  speaks  all  his  mind,  but  a  wise  man  reserves  something 
until  hereafter. 


Relations  BetweenCoordinate  Thoughts.  77 

7.  It  is  not  snowing,  nor  is  it  raining. 

8.  Some  are  born  great ;  some  achieve  greatness ;   and  others 
have  greatness  thrust  upon  them. 

9.  The  man  dies  but  his  memory  lives. 

10.  Tije  man  pays  his  debts  promptly,  therefore  he  is  honest. 

11.  Be  temperate  in  youtli  or  you  will  have  to  be  abstinent  in 
old  age. 

12.  Of  thy  unspoken  word  thou  art  master  ;  thy  spoken  word  is 
master  of  thee. 

13.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath,  but  grievous  words  stir 
up  strife. 

14.  There  was  a  gay  maiden  lived  down  by  the  mill — 

Ferry  me  over  the  ferry — 
Her  hair  was  as  bright  as  the  waves  of  a  rill, 
When  the  sun  on  the  brink  of  his  setting  stands  still. 

Her  lips  were  as  full  as  a  cherry. 

15.  This  world  is  all  a  fleeting  show. 

For  man's  illusion  given; 
The  smiles  of  joy,  the  tears  of  woe,  , 

Deceitful  shine,  deceitful  flow — 

There's  nothing  true  but  heaven! 

16.  The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 

And  snowy  summits  old  in  story; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes. 
And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. 

17.  And  now  there  came  both  mist  and  snow. 
And  it  grew  wondrous  cold. 

And  ice  mast-high  came  floating  by, 
As  green  as  emerald. 

18.  The  day  is  done;  and  slowly  from  the  scene 
The  stooping  sun  upgathers  his  spent  shafts, 
And  puts  them  back  into  his  golden  quiver. 

19.  Night  dropped  her  sable  curtain  down,  and  pinned  it  with  a 
star. 

20.  A  blind  man  is  a  poor  man,  and  blind  a  poor  man  is;  for  tlu' 
former  seeth  no  man,  and  the  latter  no  man  sees. 


78  A  New  Enqltsh  Grammar. 

What  is  meant  by  the  members  of  compound  sentences? 

Define  and  illustrate  the  different  kinds  of  relations  which 

may  exist  between  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  members 

of  compound  sentences. 

All  the  kinds  of  words  used  in  the  simple  sentence  are  also  used 
in  the  compound  sentence,  and  they  may  have  all  the  modifiers 
which  they  may  take  in  the  simple  sentence.  In  addition  to  all  the 
uses  given  in  the  simple  sentence,  the  pronoun  and  adverb,  in  the 
•compound  sentence,  may  each  have  a  connective  use;  e.  g..  The 
election,  which  was  hotly  contested,  was  lost;  but  the  defeated  party 
learned  a  valuable  lesson  when  they  saw  their  mistake. 

The  conjunction  in  the  compound  sentence,  in  addition  to  the 
use  given  for  it  in  the  simple  sentence,  may  also  show  the  relation 
between  thoughts.  • 

The  relations  between  coordinate  thoughts,  which  the  conjunc- 
tion expresses,  are  of  four  kinds:  addition,  opposition,  alter- 
nation, and  conclusion. 

The  relation  of  addition  is  that  relation  which  exists  between 
coordinate  thoughts  when  the  thoughts  are  in  the  same  line;  the 
typical  conjunction  to  express  this  relation  is  "and;"  e.  g..  The 
report  is  widely  circulated  and  I  believe  it  is  true. 

The  relation  of  opposition  is  that  relation  which  exists 
between  coordinate  thoughts  when  the  thoughts  are  not  in  the  same 
line;  one  thought  may  be  directly  opposed  to  the  other;  e.  g.,  Yov 
think  he  is  dishoned  hut  he  is  not;  or  one  thought  may  be  opposed  to 
what  might  be  inferred  from  the  other ;  e.g.,  The  water  is  very  deep  Init 
one  can  see  the  bottom.  The  typical  conjunction  to  express  this  rela- 
tion is  "but." 

The  relation  of  alternation  is  that  relation  which  exists  be- 
tween coordinate  thoughts  when  the  mind  accepts  one  and  rejects  the 
other;  e.  g.,  It  is  true  or  I  am  deceived;  or  when  the  mind  rejects 
both;  e.  g..  He  is  neither  intelligent  nor  is  he  a  gentleman.  The  typical 
conjunction  to  express  this  relation  is  "or." 

The  relation  of  conclusion  is  that  relation  which  exists  be- 
tween coordinate  thoughts  when  one  thought  is  an  inference  from  the 


The  Conjunction  in  the  Compound  Sentknce.  79 

other;  e.  g.,  It  is  raining,  therefore  we  cannot  go.    The  typical  conjunc- 
tion to  express  this  relation  is  "therefore." 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  the  clauses  which  ex- 
press the  coordinate,  independent  thoughts. 

EXERCISE  25. 

The  Conjunction  in  tine  Compound  Sentence. 

State  the  members  of  the  following  compound  sentences; 
the  kinds  of  relation  existing  between  the  thoughts  expressed 
by  the  members;  the  conjunction  expressing  the  relation; 
and  note  and  explain  the  punctuation: 

1.  Places  near  the  sea  are  not  extremely  cold  in  winter,  nor  are 
they  extremely  warm  in  summer. 

2.  The  man  takes  plenty  of  exercise ;  he  is  well. 

3.  We  must  conquer  our  passions  or  they  will  conquer  us. 

4.  People  in  the  streets  are  carrying^  umbrellas;  hence  it  must 
be  raining. 

5.  Neither  James  nor  John  had  his  lesson. 

6.  Solomon  was  both  learned  and  wise. 

7.  Though  it  is  deep,  yet  it  is  clear. 

8.  I  care  not  whether  it  rains  or  snows. 

9.  Unto  us  was  the  gospel  preached  as  well  as  unto  them. 

10.  The  house  was  built  upon  a  rock ;  it  did  not  fall. 

11.  The  prodigal  robs  his  heirs;  the  miser  robs  himself. 

12.  Mirth  should  be  the  embroidery  of  conversation,  but  it  should 
not  be  the  web. 

1.3.    I  was  told  to  go  else  I  should  remain. 

14.  Be  industrious,  otherwise  you  will  come  to  grief. 

15.  Margaret  Fuller,  whom  the  waves  buried,  accomplished  much 
good;  but  she  was  taken  away  in  the  midst  of  her  usefulness. 

16.  Ignorance  is  the  curse  of  God,  knowledge  the  wing  wherewith 
we  fly  to  heaven. 

17.  The  conscious  water  saw  its  Lord,  and  blushed. 


80  A  New  English  Grammar. 

18.  The  aspen  heard  them,  and  she  trembled. 

19.  O  dark  and  cruel  deep,  reveal 
The  secret  that  thy  waves  conceal ! 
And  ye  wild  sea-birds  hither  wheel 
And  tell  it  me. 

20.  ~He  cast  off  his  friends  as  a  huntsman  his  pack, 

For  he  knew  when  he  wished  he  could  whistle  them  back. 

21.  There  is  much  that  is  deciduous  in  books,  but  all  that  gives 
them  a  title  to  rank  as  literature  in  the  highest  sense  is  perennial. 

22.  I  do  not  like  to  say  it,  but  he  has  sometimes  smothered  the 
child-like  simplicity  of  Chaucer  under  feather-beds  of  verbiage. 

23.  Zeal  and  duty  are  not  slow, 

But  on  occasion's  forelock  watchful  wait. 

24.  Earth  felt  the  wound;  and  nature  from  her  seat 
Sighing,  through  all  her  works  gave  signs  of  woe. 

25.  In  peace,  thou  art  the  gale  of  spring;  in  war,  the  mountain 
storm. 

State  the  typical  conjunction  used  to  express  each  kind  of 
relation.  Give  the  literal  meaning  of  each.  Write  lists  of 
conjunctions  used  to  express  the  different  kinds  of  relations 
existing  between  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  members  of 
compound  sentences.  Be  able  to  use  each  conjunction  in 
sentences. 

EXERCISE  26. 
Punctuation  of  Compound  Sentence. 

State  the  punctuation  of  the  compound  sentence,  men- 
tioning all  the  modifying  influences. 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  may  be  separated  by  a 
comma,  semicolon,  colon,  or  no  mark  at  all. 

The  kind  of  mark  used  will  depend  upon  the  following  points. 
(1).  Interpunctuation.  (2).  Presence  or  absence  of  the  conjunction. 
(3).  The  kind  of  relation  expressed.    (4).  Length  of  clauses. 


Punctuation  of  Compound  Sentence.  81 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  giving  reasons;  state  the 
kind  of  relation  existing  between  the  thoughts  expressed  by 
the  members;  and  separate  each  member  into  its  principal 
parts : 

A.    No  one  ought  to  wound  the  feelings  of  another  or  to  insult  him 

2.  A  wise  man  se^k^to  shine  in  himself  a  fool  to  outshine  others 

3.  Men  are  not  to  be  judged  by  their  looks  habits  and  appear- 
ances but  by  their  lives 

4.  Stones  grow  plants  grow  animals  grow  feel  and  live 

5.  Avoid  affectation  it  is  a  contemptible  weakness 

6.  Harbor  no  malice  in  thy  heart  it  will  be  a  viper  in  the  bosom 

7.  Crafty  men  contemn  studies  simple  men  admire  them  and 
wise  men  use  them 

8.  The  wise  man  considers  what  he  wants  the  fool  what  he 
abounds  in 

9.  The  noblest  prophets  have  been  children  lisping  the  speech 
laughing  the  laugh  of  childhood 

10.  The  mountains  rise  and  circling  oceans  flow 

11.  He  suffered  but  his  pangs  are  o'er 

Enjoyed  but  his  delights  are  fled 
Had  friends  his  friends  are  now  no  more 
And  foes  his  foes  are  dead 

12.  Swift  to  the  breach  his  comrades  fly 
Make  way  for  liberty  they  cry 

And  through  the  Austrian  phalanx  dart 
As  rushed  the  spears  through  Arnold's  heart 

13.  Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  north  wind's  breath 

And  stars  to  set  but  all 
Thou  hast  all  seasons  for  thine  own  0  Death 

14.  Themistocles  was  cautious  and  he  was  al^oyaliant  but  the 
wisdom  of  the  serpent  and  the  courage  of  the  lion  could  not  prevail 
against  destiny 

15.  Turn  gentle  hermit  of  the  vale 

And  guide  thy  lonely  way 
To  where  yon  taper  cheers  the  dale 
With  hospitable  ray 


82  A  New  English  Grammar. 

^  EXERCISE  27. 

Definitions. 
Define  and  illustrate  a  regular  compound  sentence;  an 
abridged  compound  sentence;  a  simple  sentence  with  a  com- 
pound element;  and  a  compound-complex  sentence.  Be  ready 
to  expand  your  abridged  compound  sentences  into  regular 
compound  sentences,  and  show  that  your  simple  sentences 
with  compound  elements  cannot  be  expanded. 

A  regular  coinpoiincl  sentence  is  a  compound  sentence  in 
which  all  the  elements  of  each  thought  are  expressed;  e.  g.,  Faithful 
are  the  wounds  of  a  friend,  hut  the  kisses  of  an  enemy  are  deceitful. 

An  abridged  compound  sentence  is  a  compound  sentence  in 
which  the  common  elements  of  the  thoughts  are  expressed  but  once ; 
e.  g.,  May  I  govern  my  passions  rvith  absolute  sway, 

And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 

A  simple  sentence  with  a  compound  element  is  a  simple 
sentence  some  element  of  the  thought  expressed  in  which  is  a 
compound  idea;  e.  g.,  Bread  and  milk  is  good  food. 

A  compound-complex  sentence  is  a  compound  sentence 
having  among  its  members  one  or  more  complex;  e.  g., 
Her  sunny  locks 

Hang  on  her  temples  like  a  golden  fleece, 
Which  makes  her  seat  of  Belmont,  Colchos'  sti-and, 
And  many  Jasons  come  in  quest  of  her. 

EXERCISE  28. 
Analysis  of  Compound  Sentence. 

State  the  following  facts  of  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Classify  the  sentence. 

2.  Read  the  members. 

3.  Name  the  conjunction  and  state  the  kind  of  relation 
expressed  by  it. 


Analysis  of  Compound  Sentenck.  83 

4.  Verify  the  punctuation. 

5.  Analyze  each  member. 

a.  Give  entire  subject. 

b.  Give  entire  predicate. 

c.  Give  entire  relational  element. 

d.  Give  principal  word  of  the  subject  and  the  modi- 

fiers of  it. 

e.  Same  of  other  parts. 

1.  Apply  yourselves  to  study ;  it  will  redound  to  your  honor. 

2.  Every  man  desires  to  live  long  but  no  man  would  be  old. 

3.  Few  and  short  were  the  prayers  we  said, 

And  we  spake  not  a  word  of  sorrow; 
But  we  silentlj'  gazed  on  the  face  of  the  dead, 
And  we  bitterly  thought  of  the  morrow. 

4.  So  Heaven  decrees ;  with  Heaven  who  can  contend  ? 

5.  Faithful  are  the  wounds  of  a  friend,  but  the  kisses  of  an 
enemy  are  deceitful. 

0.    May  I  govern  my  passions  with  absolute  sway, 
And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 


/ . 


Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen. 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 


8.    Upon  her  breast  a  sparkling  cross  she  wore. 
Which  Jews  might  kiss  and  infidels  adore; 
Her  lively  looks  a  sprightly  mind  disclose — 
(Juick  as  her  eyes,  and  as  unfixed  as  those; 
Favors  to  none,  to  all  she  smiles  extends ; 
Oft  she  rejects,  but  never  once  offends. 

'.I.    Tlie  vine  still  clings  to  the  mouldering  wall. 
But  at  every  gust  the  dead  leaves  fall. 

10.     And  as  a  hare,  when  hounds  and  horns  pursue, 
Pants  to  the  i^lace  from  whence  at  first  he  flew, 
[  still  had  hopes,  my  long  vexations  past. 
Hero  to  return,  and  die  at  home  at  last. 


84  A  New  English  Grammar. 

11.  Take  her  up  tenderly, 

Lift  her  with  care, 

Fasliioned  so  slenderly, 

Young  and  so  fair. 

12.  Come  as  the  winds  come,  when 

Forests  are  rended ; 
Come  as  the  wind  comes,  when 
Navies  are  stranded. 

13.  Alas,  'tis  true  I  have  gone  here  and  there, 
And  made  myself  a  motley  to  the  view. 

Gored  mine  own  thoughts,  sold  cheap  what  is  most  dear. 

14.  Fond  fool !  six  feet  of  earth  is  all  thy  store,      * 
And  he  that  seeks  for  all  shall  have  no  more. 

15.  This  is  the  state  of  man:  to-day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hope;  to-morrow  blossoms. 
And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him ; 
The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost. 

16.  A  professed  Catholic,  he  imprisoned  the  Pope ;  a  pretended 
patriot,  he  impoverished  the  country. 

17.  There  are  but  few  voices  in  the  world  but  many  echoes. 

18.  He  is  a  freeman  whom  the  truth  makes  free. 
And  all  are  slaves  beside. 

19.  And  neither  the  angels  in  heaven  above. 
Nor  the  demons  down  under  the  sea, 
Can  ever  dissever  my  soul  from  the  soul 
Of  the  beautiful  Annabel  Lee. 

20.  Night's  candles  are  burnt  out,  and  jocund  Day 
Stands  tiptoe  on  the  mountain  tops. 

21.  Any  nobleness  begins  at  once  to  refine  a  man's  features,— 
any  meanness  or  sensuality  to  imbrute  them. 

22.  This  should  have  been  a  noble  creature ;  he 
Hath  all  the  energy  which  would  have  made 
A  goodly  frame  of  glorious  elements. 

Had  they  been  wisely  mingled. 

23.  But  look,  the  morn  in  russet  mantle  clad 
Walks  o'er  the  dew  of  yon  high,  eastern  hill. 


The  Substaktive  Clause.  85 

24.  See  how  the  morning  opes  her  golden  gates, 
And  takes  her  farewell  of  the  glorious  sun ! 

25.  I  saw  from  the  beach  when  the  morning  was  shining, 

A  bark  o'er  the  waters  move  gloriously  on ; 
I  came,  when  the  sun  o'er  that  beach  was  declining — 
The  bark  was  still  there,  but  the  waters  were  gone. 
For  other  good  sentences,  see  Part  II. 

*  Make  an  outline  of  the  compound  sentence. 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE. 

EXERCISE  29. 

The  Substantive  Clause. 

State  the  use  of  each  italicized  expression  in  the  following 
sentences.  Substitute  a  clause  for  each  expression,  making 
the  sentences  complex: 

1.  Weakness  is  your  excuse. 

[Explanation.— The  word,  weakness,  is  here  used  as  the  subject  of 
the  sentence.  We  might  substitute  for  it  the  following  clause:  That 
you  are  weak  is  your  excuse.  The  clause  is  now  used  as  the  subject 
of  the  sentence.] 

2.  The  result  was  the  signing  of  the  treaty. 

3.  They  asked  his  presence. 

4.  This  fact,  the  rotundity  of  the  earth,  is  believed  by  all. 

.').    There  is  some  dispute  about  the  real  discoverer  of  America, 

6.  We  are  desirous  of  your  success. 

7.  They  insisted  on  your  remaining. 

State  the  use  of  the  clause  you  have  substituted  in  each 
case  in  the  preceding  sentences. 

*  The  teacher  should  here  require  the  pupil  to  construct  an  outline  similar  to 
that  constructed  for  "Modifiers"  or  "  The  Simple  Sentence." 


86  A  New  English  Grammar. 

EXERCISE  30. 

Ill  the  following  sentences,  read  the  principal  clause  and 

then  the  subordinate.     State  the  use  of  each  subordinate 
clause.     Note  and  explain  the  punctuation: 

1.  What  you  say  is  of  little  consequence. 

2.  My  home  is  wherever  I  am  happy. 

3.  I  know  not  where  they  have  laid  him. 

4.  The  fact,  that  it  was  done  by  him,  is  apparent. 

5.  He  traded  with  what  capital  he  had. 

6.  When  letters  were  first  used,  is  not  certainly  known. 

7.  A  peculiarity  of  English  is  that  it  has  so  many  borrowed  words. 

8.  The  fact,  that  mold  is  a  plant,  is  wonderful. 

9.  That  stars  are  suns,  is  the  belief  of  astronomers. 

10.  Astronomers  believe  that  stars  are  suns. 

11.  The  belief  of  astronomers  is  that  stars  are  suns. 

12.  The  belief,  that  stars  are  suns,  is  held  by  astronomers. 

13.  That  the  caterpillar  turns  to  a  butterfly,  is  a  curious  fact. 

14.  The  thought,  that  we  are  spinning  around  the  sun  some  twenty 
miles  a  second,  almost  makes  one  dizzy. 

15.  We  are  quite  sorry  that  it  is  so. 

16.  He  was  afraid  lest  he  should  fall. 

17.  We  are  not  certain  that  an  open  sea  surrounds  the  pole. 

18.  They  gave  the  goods  to  whoever  wanted  them. 

19.  The  old  lady  put  the  question  to  whomever  she  met. 

20.  The  missionaries  preached  to  what  people  remained. 

State  all  the  uses  of  the  substantive  clause,  usual  form,  in 

the  complex  sentence.  Write  one  original  example  of  each  use. 

The  words  used  in  forming  the  complex  sentence,  their  uses,  and 
the  modifiers  which  may  belong  to  them  are  all  the  same  as  in  the 
compound  sentence. 

The  substantive  clause  in  its  usual  form  may  have  the  follow- 
ing uses  in  the  complex  sentence:    subject,  predicate,  appositive, 


The  Quotation.  -  8" 

direct  objective,  indirect  objective,  adverbial  objective  modifier,  and 
principal  part  of  a  prepositional  phrase. 

When  the  appositive  clause  does  not  restrict  the  word  modified, 
or  combine  closely  with  it,  it  should  be  separated  from  the  word  it 
modifies  by  the  comma.  But  the  clause  explanatory  of  the  word,  "it," 
is  very  seldom  so  set  off. 

When  the  substantive  clause  is  irregularly  placed,  it  is  set  ofi'by 
the  comma. 

When  the  principal  clause  breaks  up  the  subordinate  clause,  it 
should  be  set  off  by  the  comma. 

When  the  clause  ends  in  a  verb  and  is  followed  by  the  same  verb, 
the  two  should  be  separated  by  a  comma. 

EXERCISE  31. 

The  Quotation. 

State  the  principal  clause  and  the  subordinate  clause  in 
each  of  the  following  sentences.  State  the  use  of  the  subor- 
dinate clause.  Note  and  explain  the  punctuation.  How  do 
the  clauses  differ  from  those  in  the  preceding  list? 

1.  "Mental  power  can  never  be  gained  from  senseless  fiction," 
says  a  certain  writer. 

2.  The  peacock  struts  about,  saying,  "  What  a  fine  tail  I  have! " 
o.    Socrates's  greatest  saying  was,  "  Know  thyself." 

4.  Shakespeare's  metaphor,  ".Night's  candles  are  burned  out," 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  literature. 

5.  The  shortest  verse  in  the  Bible  is  this:  "Jesus  wept." 

6.  "  What  have  I  done?"  is  asked  by  the  knave  and  the  thief. 

7.  Hamlet's  exclamation  M'as,  "  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man !  " 

8.  Cries  of,  "  Long  live  the  king!  "  rent  the  air. 

9.  The  traveler  said  that  he  was  weary. 

10.  The  speaker  said  that  Protection  was  a  failure. 

11.  "You  will,"  he  said,  "be  well  satisfied  with  the  change." 


88  A  New  English  Grammar. 

12.  A  writer  says,  "I  have  heard  more  than  one  person  say,  'I 
am  thankful.' " 

13.  I  will  ask  you,  "  What  can  you  do?" 

14.  The  message  ran  thus:  "England  expects  every  man  to  do 
his  duty." 

15.  Charles  Lamb,  reading  the  epitaphs  in  a  church-yard,  in- 
quired, "Where  be  all  the  bad  people  buried?" 

16.  In  studying  grammar  through  the  English  language,  we  must 
purge  our  minds  of  the  wooden  notion,  tliat  it  is  an  inherent  quality 
of  a  word  to  be  this  or  that  part  of  speech. 

17.  The  whole  force  of  conversation  depends  on  how  much  you 
can  take  for  granted. 

18.  Nathan  Hale's  only  regret  was,  that  he  had  but  one  life  to 
give  to  his  country. 

19.  Byron,  seeing  Moore  eating  an  under-done  beefsteak,  asked  if 
he  were  not  afraid  of  committing  murder  after  such  a  meal. 

20.  Lowell  has  long  been  certain  that  the  greatest  vice  of  Ameri- 
can writing  and  speaking  is  a  studied  want  of  simplicity. 

Explain  the  difference  between  a  direct  and  an  indirect 
quotation;  between  a  substantive  clause  and  a  direct  quota- 
tion; between  a  substantive  clause  and  an  indirect  quotation. 
State  the  punctuation  of  the  direct  quotation.  State  all  the 
uses  of  the  direct  quotation  in  the  complex  sentence.  Write 
an  original  example  of  each  use. 

The  direct  quotation  may  be  used  in  the  complex  sentence  as  sub- 
ject, predicate,  appositive  modifier,  direct  objective  modifier,  and 
principal  ]:>art  of  a  prepositional  phrase. 

A  direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital  and  be  enclosed  in 
quotation  marks,  and  is  usually  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence by  the  comma. 

A  direct  quotation,  when  a  question  or  exclamation,  should  be 
followed  by  its  appropriate  mark. 


Punctuation  and  Capitalization.  89 

When  a  direct  quotation  is  broken  up  by  another  part  of  the  sen- 
tence, each  part  of  the  quotation  should  be  enclosed  in  quotation 
marks  and  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma. 

A  direct  quotation  formally  introduced  should  be  preceded  by  a 
colon. 

A  quotation  within  a  quotation  should  be  enclosed  in  single  quo- 
tation marks. 

EXERCISE  32. 

Punctuate  and  capitalize  the  following  sentences,  giving 
reasons: 

1.  This  we  know  that  our  future  depends  upon  our  present 

2.  The  story  of  Washington's  hatchet  it  is  now  believed  is  untrue 

3.  Why  me  the  stern  usurper  spared  I  knew  not 

4.  The  project  it  is  certain  will  succeed 

5.  Whatever  is  is  right 

6.  He  said  the  maxim  a  fool  and  his  money  are  soon  parted  is 
many  times  exemplified 

7.  In  the  New  Testament  are  the  following  words  Jesus  answered 
the  Jews  is  it  not  written  in  your  law 

8.  The  English  said  Voltaire  gain  two  hours  a  day  by  clipping 
words 

9.  Gallop  gasped  Joris  for  Aix  is  in  sight 

10.  The  Queen  said  repeatedly  with  a  firm  voice  into  thy  hands 
0  Lord  I  commend  my  spirit 

11.  You  lazy  fellow  cried  Hercules  how  dare  you  send  for  me  till 
you  have  tried  to  do  without  me 

12.  Fly  Rebecca  for  no  human  aid  can  avail  you  said  Ivanhoe 

13.  Said  the  school  master  when  asked  about  Esau  the  pupil  said 
Esau  wrote  a  famous  book  of  fables  and  sold  the  copyright  for  a 
bottle  of  potash 

14.  What  teacher  of  rhetoric  has  not  sympathized  with  the  der 
lightful  Portia  in  the  Merchant  of  Venice  when  she  says  with  a  sigh 
if  to  do  were  as  easy  as  to  know  what  were  good  to  do  chapels  had 
been  churches  and  poor  men's  cottages  princes'  palaces 


90  A  Nkw  English  Grammar. 

15.  Truth  gets^  well  says  a  certain  writer  even  if  she  be  run  over 
by  a  locomotive 

16.  The  Mohammedans  say  God  gave  two-thirds  of  all  the  beauty 
to  Eve. 

17.  We  daily  verify  the  saying  man's  extremity  is  God's  oppor- 
tunity 

18.  The  principle  involved  in  resistance  to  tyrants  is  obedience 
to  God  was  the  seminal  principle  of  the  American  Revolution 

19.  The  Ram's  Horn  says  a  self-made  man  likes  to  boast  of  his  job 

20.  One  historian  says  if  we  trac^k  Queen  Elizabeth  through  her 
tortuous  mazes  of  lying  and  intrigue  the  sense  of  her  greatness  is 
almost  lost  in  a  sense  of  contempt 

State  all  the  rules  for  punctuating  the  substantive  clause, 
both  in  its  usual  form  and  as  a  direct  quotation. 

EXERCISE  33. 

The  Adjective  Clause. 

State  the  use  of  each  italicized  expression  in  the  following- 
sentences.  State  whether  they  narrow  the  meaning  of  the 
word  modified  or  simply  make  prominent  an  attribute  of  an 
object  of  thought : 

1.  Mahomet,  the  founder  of  the  faith  of  Islam,  was  born  in  Mecca. 

[ExPL.\NATioN. — The  expression,  "the  founder  of  the  faith  of 
Islam,"  is  an  appositive  modifier  of  the  word,  "  Mahomet."  It  simply 
makes  prominent  an  attribute  of  the  object  of  thought  expressed 
by  that  word.  We  could  make  a  complex  sentence  out  of  it,  as 
follows:  Malwmet,  ivho  was  the  founder  of  the  faith  of  Islam,  ivas  born  in 
Mecca.  The  principal  clause  is,  "  Mahomet  was  born  in  Mecca." 
The  subordinate  clause  is,  "  who  was  the  founder  of  the  faith  of 
Islam,"  and  it  is  descriptive.  The  connective  word  is,  "  who,"  and  it 
has  two  uses:  (1).  It  is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause.  (2). 
It  expresses  the  relation  between  the  principal  thought  and  the  sub- 
ordinate thought  or  it  joins  the  subordinate  to  the  principal  clause.] 

2.  Sunderland's  crime  was  never  forgiven  by  James. 


The  Adjective  Clause.  91 

3.  A  man  of  good  character  will  win  respect. 

4.  The  prisoner,  stupefied  i^h  terror,  could  not  respond. 

~5.    The  army,  conquered  at  Waterloo,  was  commanded  by  Napoleon. 
().     Solomon,  the  builder  of  t1ie.  Temple,  was  the  son  of  David. 

7.  It  was  a  sight  to  gladden  the  heart. 

8.  Eice,  largely  consumed  by  the  natives  of  Eastern  Asia,  requires  a 
damp  soil. 

9.  Procrastination,  the  thief  of  time,  is  our  worst  enemy. 

10.  A  selfish  vc\&n,Alie  ugliest  thing  upon  which  the  angels  leave  to  look, 
is  a  disgrace  to  humanity. 

Change  each  of  the  preceding  sentences  into  a  complex 
sentence.  State  the  principal  clause  and  the  subordinate 
clause  in  each.  State  whether  the  subordinate  clause  is  limit- 
ing or  descriptive.     Point  out  the  connective  word  and  state 

its  uses. 

A  limiting-  adjective  clause  is  an  adjective  clause  whose  chief 
use  is  to  narrow  the  application  of  the  woi'd  it  modifies. 

A  descriptive  adjective  clause  is  an  adjective  clause  whose 
chief  use  is  to  make  prominent  an  attribute  of  the  object  of  thought 
expressed  by  the  word  which  it  modifies. 

EXERCISE  34. 
Observe  the  preceding  instructions  with  regard  to  the  follow- 
ing sentences: 

1.  God  rules  the  world,  which  he  created. 

2.  A  city  that  is  set  on  a  hill  cannot  be  hid. 

3.  The  man  who  conquers  selfishness  is  brave. 

4.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

5.  I  thrice  presented  him  a  kingly  crown,  which  he  did  thrice 
refuse. 

6.  My  father,  whom  jill  loved,  was  fond  of  flowers. 

7.  The  girl  and  the  cat,  that  were  in  the  room,  were  having  a 
frolic. 

8.  The  person  who  first  ran  to  the  sepulcher  was  a  woman. 

9.  He  purchased  such  books^  were  wanted. 


92  A  New  English  Grammar. 

10.  To  live  in  hearts  we  leave  behind  is  not.  to  die. 

11.  There  is  not  a  man  here  but  knows  it. 

12.  There  is  no  fireside,  but  has  one  vacant  chair. 

13.  As  many  as  received  him,  to  them  gave  he  power. 

14.  Such  as  I  have,  give  I  unto  thee. 

15.  To  him  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds  communion  with  her 
visible  forms,  she  speaks  a  various  language. 

16.  It  was  to  me  that  he  gave  the  book. . 

17.  It  was  fromliim  that  I  received  the  information. 

18.  The  lever  which  moves  the  world's  mind  is  the  printing  press. 

19.  The  knights  of  the  round  table,  who  flourished  in  the  reign 
of  King  Arthur,  were  brave. 

20.  Margaret  Fuller,  whom  the  waves  buried,  was  a  good  woman. 

EXERCISE  35. 

State  the  use  of  each  italicized  expression  in  the  following. 
Tr}^  to  substitute  one  word  for  the  entire  italicized  expres- 
sion in  each  case.  State  all  the  uses  of  the  word  Avhich  you 
substitute: 

1.  He  who  wins  may  laugh. 

[Explanation.— In  the  above  sentence,  the  word,  "He,"  is  the 
subject  of  the  principal  clause,  "  He  may  lau  gh."  The  word,  "  who," 
is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause,  "  who  wins,"  and  also  ex- 
presses the  relation  between  the  principal  thought  and  the  subor- 
dinate thought  or  it  joins  the  subordinate  clause  to  the  principal 
clause.  The  word,  "  whoever,"  might  be  substituted  for,  "  He  who." 
The  word,  "whoever,"  would  then  have  three  uses:  Two  substan- 
tive uses,  subject  of  i^rincipal  clause  and  subject  of  the  subordinate 
clause;  and  one  connective  use,  expressing  the  relation  between  the 
principal  and  the  subordinate  thought,  or  joining  the  subordinate 
to  the  principal  clause.] 

2.  The  thing  ivhich  is  right  is  safe. 

3.  He  wants  anything  which  he  sees. 

4.  Tlie  person  whom  falsehood  pleases,  truth  offends. 

5.  Do  the  thing  which  is  right. 


The  Adjective  Clause.  93 

6.  The Xtord-ebsisieneihr-cFfiy  person  whom  he  loveth. 

7.  Any  person  who  runs  may  read. 

8.  The  person  who  keepeth  the  haw  is  a  wise  son. 

9.  I  speak  as  to  wise  men:  judge  ye  the  thing  which  I  say. 
i.0.  The  person  who  enters  here  should  have  a  pure  heart. 

EXERCISE  36. 

State  all  the  uses  of  the  italicized  expressions  in  the  fol- 
lowing. Expand  the  words  so  as  more  clearly  to  show  all 
their  uses: 

1.  W/ioewr  sees  not  the  sun  is  bhnd. 

2.  He  'knovii u'homever  he  has  once  seen. 

3.  Whx)so  keepeth  the  law  is  a  wise  son. 

4.  Whatever  he  doeth  shall  prosper. 

").  Whosoever  sweareth  by  the  gift  that  is  on  the  altar  is  guilty. 

6.  Whosever  child  you  have  wronged  shall  be  avenged. 

7.  Whosewever  sins  ye  forgive  shall  be  forgiven. 

8.  I  will  be  satisfied  with  whomsoever  you  may  appoint. 

9.  You  may  have  rvhichever  you  want. 

10.  Whatsoever  ye  shall  ask,  that  will  I  do. 

11.  The  child  does  whatever  he  pleases. 

12.  He  will  do  what  is  right. 

13.  You  may  select  whichsoever  you  desire. 

14.  What  he  says  is  true. 

15.  Whosoever  shall  smite  you  on  the  right  cheek,  turn  to  him 
the  other  also. 

16.  Into  whatsoever  city  ye  shall  enter,  inquire  who  is  worthy. 

17.  Whosoever  shall  be  ashamed  of  me,  of  him  shall  the  son  of 
man  be  ashamed. 

18.  Whoever  studies  will  learn. 

19.  Whoever  does  no  good  does  harm. 

20.  Whoever  bring.s  tlie  treasure  will  receive  the  reward. 

Make  complete  lists  of  the  simple  and  compound  relative 
pronouns.    State  the  kind  of  object  expressed  by  each.   Show 


94  A  Nkw  English  Grammar. 

how  the  compound  relatives  are  formed.  When  is  the  word 
as  used  as  a  relative?  Define  relative  pronoun;  simple,  com- 
pound. What  is  an  antecedent?  What  determines  the  case 
form  of  the  compound  relative  pronoun?  State  the  punctua- 
tion of  the  adjective  clause.  Write  a  sentence  in  which  the 
compound  relative  has  a  nominative  use  in  the  principal 
clause  and  an  objective  use  in  the  subordinate  clause;  one  in 
which  the  reverse  is  true. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  which  has  a  connective  use. 

A  simple  relative  pronoun  is  a  relative  pronoun  which  has 
one  substantive  use. 

A  compound  relative  pronoun  is  a  relative  pronoun  which 
has  two  substantive  uses. 

An  antecedent  is  that  part  of  the  sentence  to  which  the  con- 
nective word  refers  and  to  which  it  joins  the  subordinate  clause. 

The  case  form  of  the  compound  relative  pronoun  must  agree 
with  its  use  in  the  subordinate  clause. 

EXERCISE  37. 

Explain  the  use  of  the  following  italicized  expressions,  and 
the  use  of  the  clauses  in  which  they  occur.  Substitute  a  single 
word  for  each  italicized  expression,  and  state  the  uses  of  the 
word  thus  substituted: 

1.  Youth  is  the  time  at  ivhich  the  seeds  of  character  are  sown. 

[Explanation. — The^xpressiOB,  "at  which,"  in  the  above  sen- 
tence, has  two  uses:  (1).  It  modifies  the  word,  "sown,"  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause.  It  is  an  adverbial  modifier,  expressing  the  adverb- 
ial idea  of  time.  (2).  The  word,  "which,"  expresses  the  relation 
between  the  principal  and  the  subordinate  thoiighj;.^^'  it  joins  the 
subordinate  to  the  principal  clause.  The  word,  '^when-;"  might  be 
substituted  for  the  italicized  expression,  "at  which,"  thus:  Youth 
is  tJie  time  vjfien  the  seeds  of  character  are  sown.  The  word,  "  when," 
then  has  the  two  uses  of  the  italicized  expression.] 

2.  I  saw  tlic  city  in  which  Longfellow  jlived. 


The  Adjective  Clause.  95 

3.  The  place  to  uhich  she  fled  is  unknown.         f-C^--'^ 

4.  I  know  a  bank  o?i  which  the  wild  thyme  grows.     *T^^  ^ 

5.  You  take  the  means  &2/ 'w7^^■c/^  I  live.  4^^f**h 
-  6.  This  is  the  arrow  vAth  which  he  killed  Cock  Robin. 

7.  This  is  the  house /roTO -uj/iic/i  Arnold  fled.       ,    uU  ■^'^'^ 

8.  I  know  the  place  of  vhich  you  speak.  ^^f-^'"'^    ' 

9.  I  do  not  like  the  platform  on  irhich  they  stand.  /*^a-<*^  *^ 
10.  The  principle  on  vhich  he  acts  is  just.         /^  '"^ 

EXERCISE  38. 
In  the  following  sentences,  state  the  principal  clause;  the 
subordinate  clause  and  the  word  it  modifies;  the  connective 
word  and  all  its  uses: 

1.  We  came  unto  the  laud  whither  thou  sentest  us. 

2.  I  have  shook  off"  the  regal  thoughts  wherewith  I  reigned. 

3.  The  play'.«  the  thing  wherein  I'll  catch  the  conscience  of  the 
king. 

4.  It  was  a  time  when  men's  heart?  were  tried. 
T).    The  place  where  he  fell  is  unknown. 

0.  He  would  give  the  duke  no  reasons  why  he  followed  a  losing 
suit. 

7.  Mark  those  laws  whereby  the  universe  is  conducted. 

8.  A  depot  is  a  place  where  stores  are  kept. 

9.  A  verb  is  a  word  whereby  the  chief  action  of  the  mind  is 
expressed. 

10.    The  valley  of  Chamouni  is  a  place  where  the  traveler  loves  to 
linger  for  days  and  even  for  weeks. 

What  is  a  conjunctive  adverb?  Make  an  outline  of  the 
adjective  clause,  showing  all  the  words  which  may  be  used 
in  joining  it  to  the  principal  clause. 

A  conjuiictivi^  adverb  is  an  adverb  which  has  a  connective  use. 

A  simple  conjunctive  advevl)  is  a  conjunctive  adverb  whicli 
has  one  adverV)ial  use. 


96  A  New  English  Grammar. 

An  adjective  clause  may  be  joined  to  the  word  which  it  modifies 
by  a  simple  relative  pronoun,  a  compound -relative  pronoun,  or  a 
simple  conjunctive  adverb. 

The  descriptive  adjective  clause  should  be  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence  by  the  comma. 

EXERCISE  39. 
The  Adverbial  Clause. 

Explain  the  uses  of  the  italicized  expressions  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences.  Try  to  substitute  a  single  word  for  each  ex- 
pression, and  then  state  all  the  uses  of  the  substituted  word  : 

1.  Improve  your  moments  during  the  time  at  which  you  are  in  school. 
[Explanation. ^In  the  above  sentence,  the  expression,  "  during 

the  time  at  which,"  has  three  uses :  two  adverbial  uses  and  one  con- 
nective use.  The  phrase,  "during  the  time,"  modifies  the  word, 
"improve."  It  is  an  adverbial  modifier,  expressing  the  adverbial 
idea  of  time.  The  phrase,  "at  which,"  modifies  the  word,  "are." 
It  is  an  adverbial  modifier,  expressing  the  adverbial  idea  of  time. 
The  word,  "  which,"  expresses  the  relation  between  the  principal  and 
the  subordinate  thought,  or  it  joins  the  subordinate  to  the  principal 
clause.  The  word,  "  while,"  may  be  substituted  for  the  italicized  ex- 
pression, thus:  Improve  your  moments  while  you  are  at  school.  Now 
the  word,  "  while,"  has  the  three  uses  of  the  italicized  expression.] 

2.  Swiftly  glide  the  hours  at  the  time  at  which  the  heart  is  young. 

3.  Smooth  runs  the  water  at  the  place  at  which  the  brook  is  deep. 

4.  At  the  time  at  which  he  slept,  she  over  him  would  spread  his 
mantle. 

5.  He  sleeps  at  the  place  at  which  night  overtakes  him. 

6.  The  boy  does  in  the  manner  in  which  he  pleases. 

7.  He  became  humbler  in  the  degree  in  which  he  grew  wiser. 

8.  Truth  is  strange  in  a  degree  in  which  fiction  is  not  strange. 

9.  In  the  manner  in  which  the  twig  is  bent,  the  tree  is  inclined. 
10.    At  the  time  at  which  Raleigh  was  launching  paper  navies,  Shake- 
speare was  stretching  his  baby  hands  for  the  moon. 


The  Adverbial  Clause.  97 

Make  a  definition  of  the  class  of  words  you  have  just  been 
substituting. 

A  compound  conjiuictive  adverb  is  a  conjunctive  adverb 
which  has  two  adverbial  uses. 

EXERCISE  40. 
In  the  following  sentences,  state  the  principal  clause;  the 
subordinate  clause,  stating  what  word  it  modifies;  the  con- 
nective word  and  all  its  uses: 

1.  Gather  dewdrops  while  they  sparkle. 

2.  Peace  rules  the  day  when  reason  rules  the  hour. 

3.  Master,  I  will  follow  thee  whithersoever  thou  goest. 

4.  Children  of  the  Heavenly  King, 
As  we  journey,  let  us  sing. 

5.  When  Greeks  joined  Greeks,  then  began  the  tug  of  war. 

6.  Where  the  bee  sucks,  there  suck  I. 

7.  Whither  I  go,  ye  cannot  come. 

8.  When  the  heart  beats  no  more,  then  the  life  ends. 

9.  Mammon  wins  his  way,  where  seraphs  might  despair. 

10.  Wheresoever  the  carcass  is,  there  will  the  eagles  be  gathered 
together. 

11.  Hell  trembled  as  he  strode. 

12.  In  Britain,  the  conquered  race  became  as  barbarous  as  the 
conquerors  were. 

13.  Death  itself  is  not  so  painful  as  is  this  sudden  horror  and 
surprise. 

14.  His  misery  was  such  that  none  of  the  bystanders  could  refrain 
from  weeping. 

15.  He  gazed  so  long,  that  both  his  eyes  were  dazzled. 

16.  As  heroes  think,  so  thought  the  Bruce. 

17.  The  earlier  you  rise,  the  better  your  nerves  will  bear  study. 

18.  Pride  may  be  pampered,  while  the  flesh  grows  lean. 

19.  They  are  better  than  we  had  expected. 

20.  He  was  so  weak,  that  he  fell. 

7 


98  A  New  English  Grammar. 

EXERCISE  41. 

State  the  use  of  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

1 .  I  left  before  suuri  se. 

2.  I  left  before  the  sun  rose. 

[In  the  first  sentence,  the  word,  "before,"  is  a  preposition.  How 
does  its  use  in  the  first  sentence  differ  from  that  in  the  second?] 

3.  George  Washington  died  after  the  accomplishment  of  his 
great  work. 

4.  George  Washington  died  after  his  great  work  was  accomplished. 

5.  The  Lord  hath  blessed  thee  since  my  coming. 

6.  The  Lord  hath  blessed  thee  since  I  came. 

7.  You  should  drink  from  the  fountain  of  knowledge  ere  your 
departure. 

8.  You  should  drink  from  the  fountain  of  knowledge  ere  you 
depart. 

9.  ■  You  may  wait  till  the  arrival  of  the  train. 

10.  You  may  wait  till  the  train  arrives. 

11.  He  sat  and  talked  until  his  death. 

12.  He  sat  and  talked  until  he  died. 

t  EXERCISE  42. 

State  the  principal  and  subordinate  clauses  in  each  of  the 
following  sentences,  and  explain  the  use  of  the  connective: 

1.    He  rushes  to  battle  as  if  he  were  summoned  to  a  banquet. 

[Explanation. — If  the  sentence  were  expanded,  it  would  read: 
He  rushes  to  battle  as  he  would  rush  if  he  were  summoned  to  a  banquet. 
The  principal  clause  is,  "He  rushes  to  battle."  The  subordin- 
ate clause  is,  "as  he  would  rush  if  he  were  summoned  to  a  ban- 
quet." The  connective  is  the  word,  "as,"  and  it  is  a  compound 
conjunctive  adverb.  (See  explanation  above.)  There  is  also  a  sub- 
ordinate clause  in  the  subordinate  clause ;  viz.,  "  if  he  were  sum- 
moned to  a  banquet."  The  connective  word  is  "  if"  and  it  is  a  pure 
.subordinate  conjunction,  i.  e.,  it  has  no  other  use  except  to  join  the 


The  Adverbial  Clause.  99 

subordinate  clause  to  the  principal  clause,  or  we  might  say,  it  ex- 
presses the  relation  between  the  principal  thought  and  the  subor- 
dinate thought.] 

2.    Our  friends  visited  us  as  frequently  as  they  could. 

8.     I  will  run  as  far  as  God  has  any  ground. 

4.  Oft  as  the  morning  dawns  should  gratitude  arise. 

5.  His  head  ached,  so  that  he  could  scarcely  study. 
H.    Since  you  insist  upon  it,  I  consent. 

7.  God  was  angry  with  the  children  of  Israel,  for  he  overthrew 
them  in  the  wilderness. 

8.  Our  fathers  sought  these  shores  in  order  that  they  might 
escape  from  persecution. 

9.  In  case  that  we  are  beaten,  we  shall  retreat. 

10.  How  happy  I  could  be  with  either, 
Were  t'other  dear  charmer  away. 

11.  Cursed  be  I,  that  I  did  so. 

12.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him. 

13.  If  the  war  of  the  Roses  did  not  utterly  destroy  English  freedom, 
it  arrested  its  progress  for  a  hundred  years. 

14.  Obey  the  law  of  nature  lest  thou  become  unnatural. 

15.  Whereas  the  Embargo  act  injured  the  commerce  of  America, 
it  was  repealed. 

16.  I  will  pay  him  so  he  will  have  no  excuse  for  returning. 

17.  Except  ye  become  as  little  children,  ye  can  in  no  wise  enter 
the  Kingdom  of  Heaven. 

18.  Unless  you  are  competent,  seek  no  promotion. 

19.  Ye  know  the  heart  of  a  stranger,  seeing  ye  were  strangers  in 
a  strange  land. 

20.  That  is  strange,  notwithstanding  he  is  your  neighbor. 

21.  I  must  go  whether  the  train  goes  or  not. 

22.  Although  the  wound  soon  healed  again,  yet,  as  he  ran,  he 
yelled  for  pain. 

23.  Milton  almost  requires  a  service  to  be  played  before  you  enter 
on  him. 


100  A  New  English  Grammar. 

24.  The  waves  of  Bound  do  not  move  so  rapidly  as  the  waves  of 
light. 

25.  The  more  we  know  of  ancient  literature,  the  more  we  are 
i^truck  with  its  modernness. 

Make  an  outline  of  the  adverbial  clause,  state  the  kinds  of 

connective  words  which  may  be  used  to  join  the  adverbial 

clause  to  the  principal  clause,  define  and  make  lists  of  each 

of  these  classes  of  .connectives,  and  finish  your  outline*  of  the 

complex  sentence.     State  the  punctuation  of  the  adverbial 

clause. 

The  adverbial  clause  may  be  joined  to  the  principal  clause  by  the 
eonapound  conjunctive  adverb  or  the  pure  subordinate  conjunction. 

The  adverbial  clause  is  set  off  by  the  comma  when  it  does  not 
closely  follow  and  restrict  the  part  of  the  sentence  which  it  modifies. 

The  causal  clause  is  frequently  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence by  the  comma. 

EXERCISE  43. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  according  to  the  following 
form  : 

1.  Classify  the  sentence  as  a  whole. 

2.  State  the  principal  parts  of  it. 

3.  Give  the  principal  word  in  each  part,  and  all  its  modifiers. 

1.  Where  beams  of  warm  imagination  play, 
The  memory's  soft  figures  melt  away. 

2.  He  who  knows  only  his  own  side  of  the  case,  knows  little  of  that. 

'6.    When  we  go  forth  in  the  morning,  we  lay  a  moulding  hand 
upon  our  destiny. 

4.  Knowledge  and  timber  should  not  be  used  much  till  they  are 
seasoned. 

5.  Whoever  seeks  the  good  of  others  will  himself  be  blessed. 

=■"  An  outline  similar  to  those  made  for  other  topics. 


Analysis  of  Complex  Sentences.  101 

6.    That  man  has  been  from  time  immemorial  a  right-handed 
animal,  is  beyond  dispute. 

7»    If  I  forget  thee,  O  Jerusalem,  let  my  right  hand  forget  her 
cunning. 

S.    Still  the  wonder  grew. 

That  one  small  head  could  carry  all  he  knew. 

9,    The  man  who  grumbles  much  prays  little. 

10.  The  smallest  dewdrop,  that  lies  on  the  meadow^  at  night,  has 
a  star  sleeping  in  its  bosom. 

11.  Not  a  soldier  discharged  his  farewell  shot, 
O'er  the  grave  where  our  hero  was  buried. 

12.  All  seems  infected  that  the  infected  spy, 
As  all  looks  yellow  to  the  jaundiced  eye. 

13.  All  are  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole 
Whose  body  nature  is,  and  God  the  soul. 

14.  Much  pleased  was  he  to  find. 

That,  though  on  pleasure  she  was  bent, 
She  had  a  frugal  mind. 

15.  Too  many  who  have  not  learned  to  follow,  want  to  lead. 

16.  Some  people  appear  to  think  that  whining  is  religion. 

17.  When  an  honest  man  stays  away  from  the  polls,  the  devil 
votes. 

18.  It  generally  takes  a  blockhead  a  good  jthile  to  find  out  what 
ails  him. 

19.  One  of  the  greatest  foes  the  devil  has  is  a  Christian  mother. 

20.  If  our  faults  were  written  on  our  faces,  how  quickly  we  would 
all  hang  our  heads. 

21.  As  the  genuineness  of  a  coin  is  made  apparent  by  the  touch 
of  an  acid,  so  are  the  qualities  of  manhood  manifested  by  the  test 
of  trial. 

22.  The  man  who  lives  only  for  himself  will  not  have  many 
mourners  at  his  funeral. 


102  A  New  English  Grammar. 

2.'i.    Read  from  some  humbler  poet 

Whose  songs  gushed  from  his  heart, 
As  showers  from  the  clouds  of  summer 
Or  tears  from  the  eyelids  start. 

24.  A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear, 
And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year. 

25.  Oh,  well  for  the  fisherman's  boy 

That  he  shouts  with  his  sister  at  play  ! 
Oh,  well  for  the  sailor  lad 
That  he  sings  in  his  boat  on  the  bay  ! 

26.  You  must  wake  and  call  me  early,  call  me  early,  mother  dear ; 
To-morrow'll  be  the  happiest  time  of  all  the  glad  New  Year; 
Of  all  the  glad  New  Year,  mother,  the  madde.st,  merriest  day; 
For  I'm  to  be  Queen  o'  the  May,  mother,  I'm  to  be  Queen  o' 

the  May. 

27.  Worth  makes  the  man  and  want  of  it  the  fellow. 

28.  In  one  rude  crash  he  struck  the  lyre,  and  swept  with  hurried 
hand  the  strings. 

29.  He  listened  to  the  song  of  the  Sirens,  yet  he  glided  by  with- 
out being  seduced  to  their  shore. 

30.  Joy  comes,  grief  goes,  we  know  not  how  ; 
Everything  is  happy  now. 
Everything  is  upward  striving; 

'Tis  as  easy  now  for  the  heart  to  be  true 

As  for  grass  to  be  green  or  skies  to  be  blue, — 

'Tis  the  natural  way  of  living. 

Define  regular  compound  sentence,  and  abridged  compound 
sentence.    Review  compound  and  complex  sentences. 

other  good  sentences  for  analysis  may  be  found  in  Part  II.  of  this  book. 

EXERCISE  44. 
Punctuation. 

Punctuate  and  capitalize  the  following,  giving  reasons  : 

1.  It  is  mind  after  all  which  does  the  work  of  the  world  t 

2.  His  passions  however  prevented  his  seeing  the  danger  » 


PlTNCTUATIOX.  103 

3.  The  affair  passed  off  to  your  satisfaction  no  doubt 

4.  Nelson  has  at  last  got  into  the  senate  . 

5.  He  promised  however  to  set  about  refoim  at  once    . 

(i.    However  much  he  promised  it  was  but  little  that  he  performed 

7.    Here  all  is  peace  and  quietness  there  all  is  turmoil  and  strife 

S.     Why  this  is  all  wrong 

9.   'Joseph  who  happened  to  be  in  the  field  at  the  time  saw  the 
carriage  approach  and  in  an  ecstacy  of  delight  hastened  to  meet  it 

10^    ff  you  would  succeed  in  business  be  honest  and  industrious 

11.  The  tree  will  not  bear  fruit  in  autumn  unless  it  blossoms  in 
the  spring 

12.  Breathe  into  a  man  an  earnest  purpose  and  you  awaken  in 
him  a  new  power 

13.  Give  time  to  the  study  of  nature  whose  laws  are  all  deeply 
interesting 

14.  Those  friendjj  who  in  the  native  vigor  of  his  powers  per- 
ceived the  dawn  "of  Robertson's  future  eminence  were  at  length 
amply  rewarded 

15.  He  preaches  most  eloquently  who  leads  the  most  pious  life 

K).  No  thought  can  be  just  of  which  good  sense  is  not  the  ground- 
work 

17.  There  are  men  and  women  whose  desire  for  knowledge  is 
never  satisfied 

18.  Modern  engineering  spans  whole  continents  tunnels  alike 
mountains  and  rivers  and  dykes  out  old  ocean  himself 

19.  Did  God  create  for  the  poor  a  coarser  earth  a  thinner  air  a 
paler  sky 

20.  Aristotle  Hamilton  Wheatley  and  McCosh  are  high  authori- 
ties in  logic 

21.  The  poor  and  the  rich  the  weak  and  the  strong  the  young 
and  the  old  have  one  common  Father 

22.  Himself  the  greatest  of  agitators  Napoleon  became  the  most 
oppressive  of  tyrants 

2.''.     Paul  the  apostle  was  a  man  of  energy 


104  A  New  English  Grammar. 

24.  The  word  poet  meaning  a  maker  a  creator  is  derived  from  the 
Greek 

25.  The  greatest  poet  among  the  ancients  Homer  like  the  great- 
est among  the  moderns  Milton  was  blind 

26.  At  the  request  of  the  Et  Rev  W  H  Hooker  D  D  the  vote  was 
taken 

27.  I  beg  leave  sir  to  present  my  friend  Lord  Hargrave 

28.  Show  pity  Lord  O  Lord  forgive 

29.  Then  came  Jesus  the  doors  being  shut  and  stood  in  their 
midst 

?>0.    To  obtain  an  education  he  was  willing  to  make  sacrifices 

31.     Awkward  in  person  he  was  ill  adapted  to  gain  respect 

.32.  Reading  maketh  a  full  man  conference  a  ready  man  writing 
an  exact  man 

33.  Semiramis  built  Babylon  Dido  Carthage  and  Romulus  Rome 

34.  Some  one  justly  remarks  it  is  a  great  loss  to  lose  an  affliction 

35.  Patrick  Henry  began  his  great  speech  by  saying  it  is  natural 
to  man  to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of  hope    ^     ^     , 

36.  As  we  perceived  the  shadow  to  have  moved  but  did  not  per- 
ceive its  moving  so  our  advances  in  learning  consisting  of  such  min- 
ute steps  are  perceivable  only  by  the  distance 

37.  So  sad  and  dark  a  story  is  scarcely  to  be  found  in  any  work 
of  fiction  and  we  are  little  disposed  to  envy  the  moralist  who  can 
read  it  without  being  softened 

.38.  If  we  think  of  glory  in  the  field  of  wisdom  in  the  cabinet  of 
the  purest  patriotism  of  the  highest  integrity  public  and  private  of 
morals  without  a  stain  of  religious  feeling  without  intolerance  and 
without  extravagance  the  august  figure  of  Washington  presents  it- 
self as  the  personation  of  all  these 

39.  The  temples  are  profaned  the  soldier's  oath  resounds  in  the 
house  of  God.the  marble  pavement  is  trampled  by  iron  hoofs  horses 
neigh  beside  the  altar, 

40.  Greece  has  given  us  three  great  historians  namely  Herodotus 
Xenophon  and  Thucydides 


Punctuation.  105 

41.  Adjective  Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes  Distribu- 
tive Demonstrative  and  Indefinite 

42.  ^  Speaking  of  party  Pope  makes  this  remark  there  never  was 
any  party  faction  sect  or  cabal  whatsoever  in  which  the  most  igno- 
rant were  not  the  most  violent 

43  Can  these  words  add  vigor  to  your  hearts  yes  they  can  do  it 
they  have  often  done  it 

44.  Yes  my  lords  I  am  amazed  at  his  lordship's  speech 

45.  Shall  a  man  obtain  the  favor  of  Heaven  by  impiety  by  mur- 
der by  falsehood  by  theft 

46.  Oh  what  a  fair  and  ministering  angel 

47.  Ho  trumpets  sound  a  war-note 

48.  Socrates  said  that  he  believed  the  soul  to  be  immortal 

49.  Some  one  has  said  what  an  argument  for  prayer  is  contained 
in  the  words  Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven 

50.  Trench  says  what  a  lesson  the  word  diligence  contains 

51.  There  is  but  one  object  says  Augustine  greater  than  the  soul 
and  that  is  its  Creator 

52.  Let  me  make  the  ballads  of  a  nation  said  Fletcher  and  I  care 
not  who  makes  the  laws 

53.  What  do  you  think  I'll  shave  you  for  nothing  and  give  you  a 
drink 

54  To  Greece  we  arc  indebted  for  the  three  principal  orders  of 
architecture  the  Doric  the  Ionic  and  the  Corinthian 

55.  He  who  is  his  own  lawyer  is  said  to  have  a  fool  for  a  client 

56.  'Tis  not  the  whole  of  life  to  live 
Nor  all  of  death  to  die 

57.  To  .honor  God  to  benefit  mankind 

To  serve  with  lofty  gifts  the  lowly  needs 

Of  the  poor  race  for  which  the  God-man  died 

And  do  it  all  for  love  oh  this  is  great 

58.  A  still  small  voice  spake  unto  me 
Thou  art  so  full  of  misery 
Were  it  not  1)etter  not  to  be 


10()  A  New  English  Grammar. 

69.    The  lilies  behold  liuvv  we 

Preach  without  words  of  purity 

HO.    And  I  will  trust  that  He  who  heeds 
The  life  that  hides  in  mead  and  wold 
Who  hangs  yon  alder's  crimson  beads 
And  stains  these  mosses  green  and  gold 
Will  still  as  He  hath  done  incline 
His  gracious  ear  to  me  and  mine 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 


EXERCISE  45. 

Substantive  Words. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  words  which  ex- 
press objects  of  thought,  and  state  what  kind  of  an  object  of 
thought  each  one  expresses;  notice  how  the  word  expresses 
the  object  of  thought.  Does  it  emphasize  the  common  at- 
tributes of  the  object  of  thought  or  the  peculiar  attributes? 
Does  it  express  the  object  of  thought  for  the  purpose  of  call- 
ing attention  to  that  particular  object  of  thought,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  calling  attention  to  its  peculiarities? 

1.  The  house  is  made  of  brick. 

2.  The  cup  and  spoon  were  presents. 
:>.    The  horse  is  a  useful  animal. 

4.  The  girl's  cheeks  are  rosy. 

5.  The  man  placed  his  hand  on  the  boy's  head. 
B.    The  boat  turned  on  her  side. 

7.  Flesh  and  blood  cannot  enter  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven. 

8.  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none. 

9.  The  articles  are  made  of  wood  and  iron. 
10.  The  odor  of  the  flower  was  pleasant. 


SUBSTANIIVi;  WOKDS.  107 

11.  Do  you  like  the  flavor  of  tlic  fruit? 

12.  Thunder  and  lightning  are  frightful. 

13.  Then  shall  this  body  return  to  dust,  and  the  soul  to  God, 
who  gave  it. 

14.  The  man  is  six  feet  in  height. 

15.  Truth  is  stranger  than  fiction. 

16.  The  lad's  goodness  of  heart  atoned  for  his  ugliness  of  feature. 

17.  His  absence  is  more  to  be  desired  than  his  presence. 

18.  Caesar's  anger  knew  no  bounds. 

19.  Which  was  greater,  Martin  Luther  or  Mohammed  ? 

20.  Oliver  was  on  his  way  from  Ludgate  to  Cornhill,  when  he 
met  a  group  of  boot-blacks. 

21.  A  troop  of  children  gamboled  on  the  green. 

22.  The  family  became  uneasy. 

23.  The  school  consisted  of  a  dozen  children. 

24.  Jupiter  is  larger  than  Venusr'l 

25.  Paul  was  the  greatest  missionary  the  church  has  ever  had. 

Name  and  define  the  class  of  words  with  which  you  have 
been  dealing.  Divide  this  class  of  words  into  sub-classes. 
State  the  bases  of  your  divisions.  Name  and  define  each 
class. 

A  substantive  word  is  a  word  that  expresses  an  object  of 
thought. 

Substantive  words  are  classified  into  two  classes,  iioiiiis  and 
pronouns,  on  the  basis  of  the  way  in  which  the  object  of  thought 
is  expressed. 

A  noun  is  a  substantive  word  that  expresses  an  object  of  thought 
by  naming  it. 

A  pronoun  is  a  substantive  word  that  expresses  an  object  of 
thought  without  naming  it. 

Nouns  are  classified  into  two  classes,  proper  and  coiunion,  on 
the  basis  of  the  class  of  attributes  emphasized  in  the  object  of 
thought  expressed  by  the  noun. 


108  A  New  English  Grammar. 

A  proper  noun  is  a  noun  that  expresses  an  object  of  thought  in 
which  the  particular  attributes  are  emphasized. 

A  coninioii  noun  is  a  noun  that  expresses  an  object  of  thought 
in  which  the  general  attributes  are  emphasized. 

Nouns  are,  again,  classified  into  two  classes,  abstract  and  con- 
crete, on  the  basis  of  the  kinds  of  objects  of  thought  expressed. 

An  abstract  novin  is  a  noun  that  expresses  an  abstract  object 
of  thought. 

A  concrete  noun  is  a  noun  that  expresses  a  concrete  object 
of  thought. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  studying  concrete  nouns  that  some  of  them 
express  objects  of  thought  that  are  ideas  of  material  objects,  while 
others  express  objects  of  thought  that  are  ideas  of  immaterial  ob- 
jects. The  first  may  be  called  material  novms.  Examples  of  this 
class  are,  table,  house,  ground.  The  second  may  be  called  immate- 
rial nouns.     Examples  of  this  class  are,  God,  soul,  mind. 

Again,  some  of  the  material  nouns  express  objects  of  thought 
that  are  individuals  of  a  class  or  a  class,  or  a  collection  of  individu- 
als thought  as  one,  or  a  substance. 

On  this  basis  we  have  class  nouns,  collective  nouns,  and 
substance  nouns. 

A  class  noun  is  a  noun  that  expresses  an  object  of  thought  which 
is  an  individual  of  a  class  or  a  class ;  e.  g,,  book,  man,  animal. 

A  collective  noun  is  a  noun  that  expresses  an  object  of  thought 
which  is  composed  of  individuals  thought  as  one,  e.  g.,  school,  army, 
troop. 

A  substance  noun  is  a  noun  that  expresses  an  object  of  thought 
which  is  the  material  or  substance  of  which  something  is  composed. 

EXERCISE  46. 
Gender. 

In  the  following  sentences,  state  the  sex  of  the  objects  of 
thought  expressed  by  the  italicized  words  : 

1 .  The  boy  learns  rapidlj'. 

2.  The  girl  assists  her  brother. 

?>.    The  child  was  carried  to  its  mother. 

4.  Willow  trees  grow  rapidly. 

5.  The  eye  of  day  hath  oped  its  lid. 


Gendek.  109 

What  property  of  substantive  words  depends  upon  the 
abo\e  noticed  distinctions?  Define.  How  many  kinds 
would  we  have?  Why?  Define  each.  Upon  what  basis  is 
this  division  made?  How  are  these  different  kinds  of  sub- 
stantive words  distinguished? 

Gender  is  the  property  of  substantive  words  that  depends  upon 
the  relation  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive 
word  bears  to  sex. 

On  the  basis  of  the  relation  of  the  object  of  thought  to  sex,  we 
have  four  classes  of  gender:  masculine,  feminine,  common 
and  neuter. 

Mascviline  gender  is  that  gender  which  denotes  that  the  object 
of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word  is  of  the  male  sex. 

Feminine  g-ender  is  that  gender  which  denotes  that  the  object 
of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word  is  of  the  female  sex. 

Common  gender  is  that  gender  which  denotes  that  the  object 
of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word  has  sex,  but  does  not 
indicate  which  sex  it  is. 

Neuter  gender  is  that  gender  which  denotes  that  the  object  of 
thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word  has  no  sex. 

We  distinguish  masculine  gender  nouns  from  feminine  gender 
nouns  by  some  change  in  the  form  of  the  word.  We  distinguish  the 
common  gender  nouns  and  neuter  gender  nouns  by  the  kinds  of  ob- 
jects of  thought  which  they  express. 

>foTE.— Gender  may  be  defined  as  that  property  of  the  substantive 
word  which  distinguishes  the  object  of  thought  expressed  in  regard 
to  sex.  With  this  definition  in  mind,  we  would  have  two  classes  of 
gender:  the  masculine  and  feminine,  and  the  property  would  be 
given  to  those  substantive  words  which  really  make  the  distinction 
in  regard  to  the  sex  of  the  object  of  thought  expressed  and  not  to 
any  others. 

Since  some  substantive  words  express  sex  oV)jects  of  thought,  but  do 
not  distinguish  which  sex,  they  are  for  convenience  said  to  be  of 
common  gender. 


110  A  New  English  Grammar. 

EXERCISE  47. 

Write  the  following  words  in  two  columns;  in  one  column, 
write  the  masculine  form  of  each  word,  and  in  the  other, 
the  feminine: 

Bachelor,  bride,  sister,  boy,  cock,  duck,  earl,  mother,  gentleman, 
hart,  female,  man,  Mr.,  sir,  niece,  son,  aunt,  Charles,  Augustus,  ab- 
bott,  baron,  hostess,  actor,  prior,  benefactor,  executor,  murderer, 
sorcerer,  man-servant,  he-bear,  female-descendant,  cock  sparrow, 
Mr.  Smith,  pea-cock,  poet,  witch,  lad,  lion,  heroine,  prince,  beau, 
duke,  emperor,  queen,  husband,  papa,  negro,  mistress,  widow,  goose, 
nun,  deacon,  heir,  Jew,  patron,  governor,  administrator,  and  prophet. 

EXERCISE  48. 

Irregularities  in  Gender. 

Notice  the  irregularities  in  the  gender  of  the  nouns  in  the 
following  sentences,  and  explain  each: 

1.  The  ship  has  lost  her  rudder. 

2.  The  meek-eyed  morn  appears,  mother  of  dews. 

3.  The  sun  in  his  glory  appears  ;  the  moon  in  her  wane  hides 
her  face. 

4.  The  nightingale  sings  her  song. 

5.  The  lion  meets  his  foe  boldly. 

6.  The  fox  made  his  escape. 

7.  Heirs  are  often  disappointed. 

8.  The  English  are  a  proud  nation. 

9.  The  poets  of  America  should  be  honored. 

10.    The  bee  on  its  wing 
Never  pauses  to  sing ; 
The  child  in  its  weakness 
Is  master  of  all. 


Person'.  Ill 

EXERCISE  49. 
Person. 

In  the  following  sentences,  state  the  relations  of  the  objects 
of  thought,  expressed  by  the  italicized  words,  to  the  speaker  : 

1.  J,  W.  R-  Merriam.  governor  of  Minnesota,  declare  it  to  be  true. 

2.  I  hope,  Jolui,  that  you  will  remember  that  character  is  more 
precious  than  gold. 

3.  Tears  fall  sometimes  when  hearts  are  least  willing  to  show 
grief. 

4.  Mr.  Sewell  has  the  pleasure  of  informing  Mr.  Mason  that  he  has 
been  elected  president  of  the  literary  soc?e<j/. 

5.  You  are  the  gentleman  who  so  kindly  assisted  me. 

Name  and  define  this  property  of  substantive  words. 
State  the  diiferent  kinds  or  classes,  and  define  and  illustrate 
each.  How  is  this  property  indicated  in  nouns?  How  in 
pronouns?     Illustrate. 

Person  is  that  property  of  the  substantive  word  which  denotes 
the  relation  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word 
bears  to  the  speaker.  We  have  noticed  in  the  sentences  above  that 
the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  the  substantive  word  may  bear 
three  different  relations  to  the  speaker;  viz.,  identity,  person  spoken 
to,  and  person  or  thing  spoken  of.  On  this  basis,  we  have  three 
classes  of  person :  the  first  person,  second  person,  and  third 
person. 

First  person  is  the  person  of  that  substantive  word  which 
expresses  the  speaker. 

Second  person  is  the  person  of  that  substantive  word  which 
expresses  an  object  of  thought  that  is  addressed  by  the  speaker. 

Third  person  is  the  person  of  that  substantive  word  which 
expresses  an  object  of  thought  that  is  spoken  of  by  the  speaker. 

This  property  is  indicated  in  nouns  by  the  relation  the  object  of 
thought  expressed  bears  to  the  speaker,  and  not  by  any  change  in 
the  form  of  the  word. 


112  A  New  English  Grammak. 

EXERCISE  50. 
Number. 

State  whether  the  italicized  words,  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, express  one  or  more  than  one  individual: 

1.  We  shall  start  for  California  in  the  morning. 

2.  We  went  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia  in  three  hours. 

3.  Birds  of  beautiful  plumage  flew  around  us  in  great  numbers. 

4.  In  my  hurry,  my  foot  slipped,  and  /fell  to  the  ground. 

5.  The  cork  oak  grows  in  large  quantities  in  the  Spanish  peninsula. 

What  is  the  property  of  substantive  words  observed  in  the 
preceding  sentences  called  ?  Divide  into  classes,  define  and 
illustrate. 

How  is  this  property  indicated  in  nouns  ?  State  the  gen- 
eral rule.  State  five  or  six  special  rules  for  the  forma- 
tion of  plurals.  What  class  of  nouns  change  form  and  re- 
tain their  identit}^?  What  classes  may  properly  have  this 
property  and  retain  their  identity?     Illustrate. 

Number  is  that  property  of  the  substantive  word  which  denotes 
whether  the  object  of  thought  expressed  is  one  or  more  than  one. 
On  this  basis,  there  are  two  classes:  singular,  and  plural. 

Singular  number  is  the  number  of  that  substantive  word  that 
expresses  cue  object  of  thought. 

Plural  number  is  the  number  of  that  substantive  word  that  ex- 
presses more  than  one  object  of  thought. 

This  property  is  generally  indicated  by  some  change  in  the  form 
of  the  word. 

The  general  and  special  rules  may  be  stated  after  a  careful  study 
of  the  following  words  has  been  made. 


Case.  113 

EXERCISE  51. 

Write  the  following  words  in  two  columns;  in  one  col- 
umn, write  the  singular  form  of  each  word,  and  in  the  other 
the  plural : 

Book,  desk,  sin,  church,  witness,  glory,  sky,  money,  wife,  knife, 
strife, life,  fife,  cargo,  negro,  folio,  quarto,  trio,  no,  men,  ox,  mice,  teeth, 
geese,  p,  q,  6,  7,  +,  *,  brother-in-law,  court-martial,  wagon-load, 
ox-cart,  handful,  ipse  dixit,  tete-a-tetes,  piano-forte,  man-servant. 
Knight-templar,  Miss  Seward,  Mr.  Casad,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Dr. 
Benson,  Mrs.  Henderson,  brother,  die,  fish,  genius,  index,  jjenny, 
pea,  Sarah,  oh,  my,  ah,  calculus,  arcanum,  criterion,  thesis,  analysis, 
antithesis,  parenthesis,  nebula,  phenomena,  calyx,  strata,  silver, 
vinegar,  hemp,  darkness,  oil,  ashes,  assets,  bellows,  clothes,  scissors, 
shears,  tongs,  news,  molasses,  lungs,  alms,  corps,  mumps,  measles, 
odds,  riches,  series,  suds,  tidings,  wages,  ethics,  politics,  mathemat- 
ics, optics,  physics,  pedagogics,  sheep,  deer,  couple,  salmon,  trout, 
gross,  hose,  yoke,  hiss,  adz,  sash,  embryo,  grotto,  oratorio,  buffalo, 
mosquito,  tomato,  potato,  valley,  chimney,  money,  duty,  spy,  cow, 
foot,  bandit,  cherub,  formula,  memorandum,  focus,  terminus,  erra- 
tum, medium,  axis,  genus,  automaton,  hypothesis,  V)asis,  crisis, 
ellipsis,  Mrs.,  Mr.,  eaves,  custom,  letter,  number,  pain,  part,  liberty, 
virtue,  vices,  attorney-general,  head,  belief,  brief,  bluff,  cliff,  staff, 
ditty,  daisy,  baby,  buoy,  turkey,  berry,  fairy,  soliloquy,  tray,  Chi- 
nese, Japanese,  forget-me-not. 

(See  Dictionary.) 

EXERCISE  52. 
Case. 

In  the  following  sentences,  state  the  relation  of  each  itali- 
cized word  to  the  other  words  in  the  sentence : 

1.  Blue-Island  is  a  toivn,  situated  on  ii bluff,  which  rises  abruptly 
from  a  prairie. 

2.  The  best  features  of  King  James's  translation  of  the  Bible  are 
derived  from  TyndaWs  version. 

3.  They  scaled  Mont  Blanc — the  great  mountain. 

4.  St.  Paul,  the  apostle,  was  beheaded  in  the  reign  of  Nero. 

5.  This  house  was  Longfelloiv,  the  poet's  home. 

8 


114  A  New  English  Grammar. 

6.  James,  the  student,  is  a  writer — a  journalist. 

7.  You,  a  farmer,  may  be  a  scholar. 

8.  Children,  be  honest  and  true. 

9.  We  spoke  of  Tennyson,  the  dead  poet. 

10.  Blaine  died  in  Washington  City,  the  c'apital  of  the  United  States. 

11.  iiTe  gave  me  the  600/;. 

12.  They  walked  ten  miles,  a  long  distance, 

13.  T/ie?/  wished  hirn  to  study  tow. 

14.  His  being  ill  prevented  our  going. 

15.  The  law  of  the  Lo7-d  is  perfect,  rejoicing  the  heart. 

Name  and  define  the  different  kinds  of  relations  which 
you  have  found  substantive  words  to  have  in  the  preceding 
sentences.  Bring  to  class  one  good  example  of  the  noun 
and  one  of  the  pronoun  used  in  each  of  these  possible  rela- 
tions. 

How  is  the  possessive  case  of  the  noun  indicated? 

Substantive  words  have  nine  different  relations  in  the  sentence. 
The  substantive  words  that  have  the  relation  of  subject,  predicate, 
used  in  direct  address,  used  independently,  or  appositive  modifier 
of  any  one  of  these,  are  said  to  have  the  nominative  relation. 

Substantive  words  that  have  the  relation  of  possessive  modifier, 
or  in  apposition  with  it,  are  said  to  have  the  possessive  relation. 

Substantive  words  that  have  the  relation  of  adverbial  objective 
modifier,  direct  objective  modifier,  indirect  objective  modifier,  or 
principal  part  of  the  prepositional  phrase,  or  in  apposition  with 
any  one  of  these,  are  said  to  be  in  the  objective  relation. 

Case  is  that  property  of  a  substantive  word  that  is  the  relation  the 
substantive  word  bears  to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  Since  the 
relations  are  groifped  into  three  groups,  there  are  three  cases : 
nominative,  possessive,  and  objective. 

Nominative  case  is  the  case  of  that  substantive  word  that  has 
a  nominative  relation. 

Possessive  case  is  the  case  of  that  substantive  word  that  has  a 
possessive  relation. 

'  Objective  case  is  the  case  of  that  substantive  word  that  has  an 
objective  relation. 


Casb.  115 

EXERCISE  53. 
Correct  the  spelling  of  nouns  used  in  the  possessive  case 
in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  sailors  life  was  in  danger. 

2.  Mens  destinies  are  in  their  own  hands. 

3.  Childrens  plays  should  be  made  a  means  of  educating  them. 

4.  Daniel  Websters  speeches  are  marvels  of  oratory. 

5.  The  Bishop  of  Dublin  palace  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

6.  Baker  and  Watsons  store  has  been  sold. 

7.  Webster  and  Worcesters  Dictionaries  are  much  in  demand. 

8.  Her  Majesty,  Queen  Victorias  government,  has  been  much 
disturbed. 

9.  The  captain  of  the  Elbes  wife  was  lost  when  the  vessel  sank. 

10.  The  knight-templars  costume  was  the  most  costly. 

11.  My  brother-in  laws  house  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

12.  Do  no  wrong  for  conscience  sake. 

13.  "  For  goodness  sake !  "  exclaimed  the  woman,  "  spare  me  my 
child!" 

14.  She  had  taken  them  all  into  her  great  heart — the  boys  sor- 
rows and  the  girls  cares. 

15.  Mrs.  Cass  appearance  gave  life  to  the  occasion. 

16.  Jonas  Buss  slate  made  the  noise. 

17.  I  got  the  money  changed  at  Sloan  the  druggist. 

18.  His  character  stands  out  when  you  compare  it  with  his  uncle 
Henry  of  Hanover. 

19.  I  would  not  have  taken  anybody  else  M'or^  for  it. 

20.  I  have  granted  your  request  but  not  anybody  else;  who  elses 
could  I  grant  ? 

21.  We  frequently  buy  books  at  the  book  shop  of  Mr.  Horns,  on 
the  Circle. 

22.  In  spite  of  the  guards  precautions,  the  prisoner  escaped. 

23.  Harris  exposition  of  Hegels  Logic  will  be  found  helpful  to 
students. 


116  A  New  English  Grammar. 

24.  James  task  was  finished  early. 

25.  Moses  law  was  formal. 

26.  Frances  share  of  the  fortune  was  badly  managed. 

27.  Xerxes  army  was  victorious. 

28.  The  woman   would  accept  neither  her  neighbors   nor  the 
countys  offers  of  assistance. 

29.  Joris  strength  failed  before  he  got  to  Aix. 

30.  I  arranged  for  the  money  at  Hill  the  banker. 

What  is  meant  by  inflection  ?     Illustrate. 

By  inflection  is  meant  the  changes  in  the  form  of  a  word  to  indi- 
cate its  different  properties. 

EXERCISE  54. 
From  the  expressions  inclosed  in  the  marks  of  parenthesis 
in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  select  the  correct  one. 

1.  I  had  a  full  understanding  of  (the  fact's  significance,  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  fact). 

2.  (Congress'  act,  the  act  of  congress)  was  approved  by  the  people 

3.  (My  wife's  picture,  picture  by  my  wafe)  became  famous. 

4.  He  is  a  stranger  (in  the  midst  of  us,  in  our  midst). 

5.  Do  not  remain  (on  our  account,  on  account  of  us). 

6.  He  carried  (a  dice,  die)  in  his  vest  pocket  as  a  mascot. 

7.  The  millennium  is  yet  a  long  (way,  ways)  off. 

8.  The  news  (was,  were)  received  with  great  demonstration. 

9.  (This,  these)  news  created  great  consternation. 

10.  He  rose  to  distniction  between  the  twenty-fourth  and  twen- 
ty-fifth (year,  years)  of  his  life. 

11.  Are  you  an  (alumni,  alumnus)  of  this  school  ? 

12.  When  I  looked,  I  saw  a  (bacterium,  bacteria). 

13.  Do  you  approve  the  change  in  the  (curricula,  curriculum)  ? 

14.  (This,  these)  scanty  data  (is,  are)  not  sufficient. 

15.  Agassiz's  (dictum,  dicta)  was,  "Study  the  fish." 

16.  This  (phenomenon,  phenomena)  was  observed  many  times. 

17.  Did  you  see  the  (harpist,  harper)  who  played  the  beautiful  air? 


Outline  of  Noun.  117 

18.  Do  you  expect  a  (rise,  raise)  in  wages? 

19.  Is  this  the  (person,  party)  in  question  ? 

20.  We  are  not  looking  at  the  question  from  the  same  (point  of 
view,  standpoint). 

Note.— The  students  .should  be  given  general  exercises  in  writing  different  forms 
of  the  noun  and  pronoun,  used  in  indicating  gender,  person,  number,  and  case. 

EXERCISE   55. 

Outline  of  Noun. 

Sum  up  with  an  outline,  indicating  all  you  have  learned 
concerning  the  noun. 

Note. — ^This  outline  is  put  in  for  illustration.  The  teacher  should 
have  the  pupils  make  a  similar  outline  summing  up  the  work  on 
each  "part  of  speech." 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  NOUN. 

I.     Noun. 

1.  Definition. 

2.  Classes. 

a.  On  basis  of  kind  of  attributes  emphasized  in  object  of  thought. 
(1).     Proper. 

(a).     Definition. 
(2).     Common. 

(o).     Definition. 

{b).     Classes  on  basis  of  nature  of  object  of  thought, 
r.     Class. 

V.     Definition. 
2\     Collective. 

1-.     Definition. 
3'.     Substance. 
1^     Definition. 

b.  On  basis  of  whether  the  object  of  thought  expressed  is  an 

idea  of  a  material  or  immaterial  object. 
(1).     Material. 

(a).     Definition. 
(2).     Immaterial. 

(a).     Definition. 

c.  On  basis  of  kind  of  object  of  thought  expressed. 
(1).     Abstract. 

(a).     Definition. 
(2).     Concrete. 

(a).     Definition. 


118  A  New  English  Grammar. 

3.    Properties. 

a.  Gender. 

(1).     Definition. 

(2).    Classes  on  the  basis  of  the  relation  of  the  object  of 
thought  to  sex. 

(a).     Masculine. 
1.^     Definition. 

(6).     Feminine. 
1.^     Definition. 

(c).     Common.  , 
1.^     Definition. 

(3).     How  distinguished. 

(4).     Irregularities. 

b.  Person. 

(1).     Definition. 

(2).    Classes  on  basis  of  relation  of  object  of  thought  to  the 
speaker. 

(a).     First  person. 
1.'     Definition. 

(6).     Second  person. 
1.^     Definition. 

(c).     Third  person. 
1.^     Definition. 

(3).     How  distinguished 

c.  Number. 

(1).     Definition. 

(2).     Classes  on  basis  of  whether  or  not  the  noun  expresses 
an  object  of  thought  that  is  one  or  more  than  one. 

(a).     Singular. 
1.1     Definition. 

(b).     Plural. 
1^     Definition. 

d.  Case. 

(1).     Definition. 

(2).    Divisions  of  on  basis  of  relation  of  the  noun  to  other 
words  in  the  sentence. 
(a).     Nominative. 
1.1     Definition. 
(6).    Possessive. 
'^  1.1     Definition, 

(c).    Objective. 
1.1     Definition. 


The  Pronoun.  119 

EXERCISE  56. 
The  Pronoun. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  pronouns  and 
state  the  relation  between  the  object  of  thought,  expressed 
by  each  one,  and  the  speaker.  Or  state  whether  the  object 
of  thought,  expressed  by  the  pronoun,  is  the  speaker,  the 
person  spoken  to,  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.  State 
what  it  is  in  the  sentence  or  the  word  which  gives  you  this 
information: 

1.  I  am  a  poor  man  myself,  and  I  can  sympathize  with  him. 

2.  Nathan  said  to  him,  "  Thou  art  the  man." 

3.  He,  himself,  acknowledged  his  fault  to  me. 

4.  The  book  which  the  child  has  is  not  worth  reading. 

5.  The  point  was  well  stated  by  the  child,  when  he  saw  it. 

6.  You  who  are  blest  with  plenty  should  be  kind  to  the  poor. 

7.  They  who  sow  in  folly  shall  reap  in  sorrow. 

8.  Blessed  are  they  that  mourn,  for  they  shall  be  comforted. 

9.  Freely  ye  have  received  ;  freely  give. 

10.  Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  on  earth. 

11.  We,  ourselves,  are  at  fault. 

12.  Who  killed  Cock  Eobin  ? 

13.  Our  fathers,  where  are  they  ? 

14.  Which  did  you  enjoy  more,  Fiske  or  Ridpath  ? 

Separate  the  pronouns  into  classes.  Give  the  basis  of  the 
division.  Define  and  illustrate  each  class.  State  how  the 
pronoun  is  like  the  noun,  and  how  it  differs  from  it.  What 
is  meant  by  antecedent?  Give  literal  meaning  of  the  word. 
Name  all  the  pronouns  in  each  class  and  give  all  their  forms. 

On  basis  of  the  fundamental  differences,  pronouns  are  separated 
into  three  classes;  viz.,  personal,  relative,  and  interrogative. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  which  shows  by  its  form  the 
relation  of  the  object  of  thought  expressed  by  it  to  the  speaker. 


120  A  New  English  Grammar. 

On  basis  of  form,  personal  pronouns  are  divided  into  simple  and 
compound. 

A  simple  personal  pronoun  is  a  personal  pronoun  in  its  sim- 
plest form. 

Tlie  compound  personal  pronouns  are  formed  by  joining 
"  self  "  or  "  selves  "  to  some  form  of  the  simple  personal  pronoun. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  one  that  has  a  connective  use  in  the 
sentence. 

A  simple  relative  pronoun  is  a  relative  pronoun  which  has 
one  substantive  use. 

A  compound  relative  pronoun  is  a  relative  pronoun  which 
has  two  substantive  uses. 

An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  which  denotes  that 
some  object  of  thought  is  unknown  and  sought  for. 

Note.— The  grammatical  properties  of  tiie  pronoun  are  tlie  same  as  those  of  the 
noun.  The  only  difference  is  that  the  pronoun  has  more  forms  to  indicate  these 
properties  than  the  noun.  Let  the  pupil  work  out  all  these  forms  carefully  from 
the  sentences  given. 

The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  which  expresses  the 
same  idea  as  the  pronoun. 

EXERCISE  57. 
Properties  of  the  Pronoun. 

State  the  antecedents  of  the  following  italicized  pronouns. 
State  the  gender,  person,  and  number  of  the  pronouns. 
How  do  you  determine  these  properties  ?  State  any  irregu- 
larity which  you  may  discover.     Give  the  rule  in  each  case  : 

1.  Each  soldier  drew  his  battle  blade. 

2.  He  liveth  long  who  liveth  well. 

3.  One's  manners  show  his  breeding. 

4.  The  person  who  doeth  good  has  his  reward. 

5.  If  any  person  in  the  audience  objects,  he  will  please  stand. 

6.  The  poor  widow  lost  her  only  son. 


Properties  of  the  Pronoun.  121 

7.  True  to  his  flag,  the  soldier  braved  even  death. 

8.  A  pupil  that  is  studious  will  learn. 

9.  He  ivho  runs  may  read. 

10.  He  desired  to  pray  but  it  was  denied  Mm. 

11.  He  has  squandered  his  money  and  he  now  regrets  it. 

12.  You  are  here  on  time,  Henry. 

13.  You  are  good  children. 

14.  Mine  eyes  have  seen  the  glory  of  the  coming  of  the  Lord. 

15.  Thine  ears  have  heard  the  joyful  sound. 

16.  "  We  formerly  thought  diflTerently  but  now  have  cbanged  our 
mind,"  wrote  the  editor. 

17.  It  thundered  as  it  seemed  to  me. 

18.  Come  and  trip  it  on  the  green. 

19.  "Which  way  I  fly  is  hell ;  myself  am  hell. 

20.  Try  to  see  yourself  as  others  see  you. 

How  are  the  compound  personal  pronouns  formed?    State 
their  uses  in  the  sentence. 

21.  Let  every  pupil  use  his  own  book. 

22.  If  any  one  be  found  at  fault,  do  unto  him  as  you  would  wish 
to  be  done  by. 

23.  You,  he,  and  /  were  boys  together. 

24.  A  friend  and  I  were  talking  the  matter  over. 

25.  Whoever  comes  will  take  your  place. 

26.  I  must  do  whatever  seems  best. 

27.  I  will  give  you  whatsoever  is  right. 
£8,)  They  censure  whomever  I  commend. 
29.  They  wist  not  what  it  was. 

^    I  will  call  whomever  you  ask. 

How  are  the  compound  relative  pronouns  formed?     What 
determines  their  case  forms? 


122  A  New  English  Grammar. 

EXERCISE  58. 
Explain  the  use  of  the  italicized  words  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  T'F/io  discovered  America  ? 

2.  WJio  were  killed  ? 

3.  Which  are  the  boys  in  trouble  ? 

4.  Which  is  the  Jew  and  which  the  merchant  here? 

5.  What  are  these  people  ? 

6.  What  is  the  man  ? 

7.  I  know  who  killed  Cock  Robin. 

8.  I  will  tell  you  what  I  will  take. 

9.  I  know  which  is  most  valuable. 
10.    I  see  which  will  come  next. 

EXERCISE  59. 

From  the  expressions  enclosed  in  the  marks  of  parenthesis 
in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  select  the  correct  one. 

1.  (Its,  it's)  tower  leaned. 

2.  Is  that  friend  of  (your's,  yours)  with  you  yet  ? 

3.  He  was  a  man  (as,  who)  could  be  depended  upon. 

4.  He  adopts  the  same  rules  in  Sunday-school  (as,  that)  he 
adopts  in  his  day  school. 

5.  Such  devices  (which,  as)  you  have  in  mind  are  important. 

6.  He  now  thinks  that  foolish  (which,  what)  he  once  thought 
wise. 

7.  (What,  whatever)  can  the  man  want? 

8.  I  cannot  pay  (the  two  of,  both  of)  them. 

9.  Oh,  if  it  had  only  been  (me,  I) ! 

10.  You  and  (I,  me)  are  invited. 

11.  Our  father  brought  you  and  (I,  me)  a  present. 

12.  Wretched  people  console  themselves  when  they  see  many 
who  are  quite  as  (bad,  badly)  off  as  (them,  they). 


Pbonoun.  123 

13.  Let  (him,  he)  who  made  thee,  answer  this. 

14.  You  are  somewhat  taller  than  (me,  I). 

15.  There  is  no  one  that  I  like  better  than  (he,  him). 

16.  I  was  sure  of  its  being  (he,  him). 

17.  I  do  not  mind  (his,  him)  going  out  evenings. 

18.  He    was  associated  with   Longfellow  and  other   poets   for 
(which,  whom)  America  is  noted. 

19.  (Who,  whom)  shall  the  party  put  forward? 

20.  Find  out  (who,  whom)  the  hat  belongs  to. 

21.  (Who,  whom)  could  that  be? 

22.  I  saw  my  friend  (who,  whom)  I  had  once  thought  would  suc- 
ceed in  business,  fail. 

23.  She  lived  with  an  aunt  (who,  whom),  she  said,  treated  her 
shamefully. 

24.  Then  came  another  man  (who,  whom),  they  all  declared, 
was  best  of  the  performers. 

25.  Under  this  tree  (the  bark  of  which,  whose  bark)  is  scarred 
in  many  places,  Washington  took  command  of  the  army. 

26.  This  is  a  point  (the  consideration  of  which,  whose  considera- 
tion) has  caused  much  trouble. 

27.  This  is  the  tree  (that,  which)  was  struck  by  lightning. 

28.  To  come  so  near  winning  the  prize  and  yet  lose  it,  I  could 
never  stand  (it,  that). 

29.  She  is  a  better  student  than  (any  one,  either)  of  her  three 
brothers. 

30.  (Either,  any  one)  of  the  ten  points  is  worth  remembering, 
but  the  (latter,  last)  is  most  essential. 

31.  (All,  each)  of  the  children  took  an  apple. 

32.  I  am  (the  one,  he,  the  person)  who  signaled  the  train. 

33.  He  gets  Emerson's  ideas,  (the  ones,  those)  that  are  most  es- 
sential, on  first  reading. 

34.  When  (one,  a  person,  we)  (comes,  come)  to  think  of  it,  (he, 
one,  we)  (takes,  take)  (one's,  his,  our)  (life,  lives)  in  (one's,  his, 
our)  (hand,  hands)  every  time  (one,  he,  we)  (boards,  board)  a  train. 


124  A  New  English  Grammar. 

35.  If  any  one  has  lost  baggage,  the  matter  will  be  investigated 
for  (you,  him)  free  of  charge. 

36.  Soldier  after  soldier  took  up  the  cry,  and  added  (their,  his) 
voice  to  the  mighty  din. 

37.  Every  one  was  absorbed  in  (his  or  her,  his,  their)  own  pleas- 
ure, or  was  bitterly  resenting  the  absence  of  the  pleasure  (he  or  she, 
they,  he)  expected. 

38.  Everybody  thought  it  right  to  extend  (his,  their)  sympathy. 

39.  I  like  to  see"each  of  them  doing  well— in  (their,  his)  own  way 
at  least. 

40.  Anybody  can  catch  trout,  if  (he,  they)  can  find  the  trout. 

41.  Everybody  was  there,  if  (he,  they)  could  possibly  go. 

42.  He  heard  of  a  man  whose  life  had  been  spent  on  the  water 
and  (whose,  his)  record  was  good. 

43.  The  undersigned  is  sorry  to  say  that  he  took  a  hat  from  the 
rack  which  is  not  (mine,  his). 

44.  When  I  close  my  eyes,  I  can  see  pictures  like  (the  ones,  those) 
presented. 

45.  The  two  brothers  love  (one  another,  each  other). 

EXERCISE  60. 
Fill  the  following  blanks  with  the  proper  forms   of  the 
compouncTrelative  pronoun,  whoever: 

(^  The  old  man  put  the  question  to  — he  met 

(^    I  am  satisfied  with  r- you  have  selected. 

3.  I  am  ready  to  entertain  W may  be  sent. 

4.  The  Lord  loveth doeth  His  will. 

(^  You  must  restore  i^<'^''~  book  you  have  taken. 

6.  Make  yourself  agreeable  to you  meet. 

7.  Tell  the  truth  to asks  it. 

8.  Contest  the  ground  with opposes  you. 

^  The  lady  inquired  of  she  saw. 

10.    The  missionary  preached  to remained. 

Make  an  outline  for  the  pronoun  similar  to  that  made  for 
the  noun. 


The  Adjective.  125 

EXERCISE  61, 

The  Adjective. 

Point  out  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences.  Divide 
them  into  as  many  different  classes  as  the  fundamental  dif- 
ferences among  them  would  indicate.  State  your  basis  of 
division  in  each  case.     Define  and  illustrate  each  kind  : 

1.  A  beautiful,  pink  sea-shell  was  found  by  little  Mary  on  the 
sandy  beach. 

2.  Large  and  small  streams  flow  from  great  mountains. 

3.  Fine  feathers  do  not  make  fine  birds. 

4.  Bob  looked  with  longing  eyes  at  the  red  cranberry  sauce  and 
steaming  turkey. 

5.  Soft,  fleecy  clouds  o'erhung  the  sky. 

6.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 

7.  The  children  are  having  a  gala  time. 

8.  The  fresh-looking  youth  was  very  much  embarrassed. 

9.  The  new-born  babe  received  the  gifts  of  the  wise  men. 

10.  Those  islands  belong  to  the  United  States. 

1 1 .  These  rude  instruments  were  used  by  this  savage  people. 

12.  AH  the  government  officials  are  well  paid. 

13.  Yonder  pond  contains  figh. 

14.  That  book  was  written  by  John  Fiske. 

15.  This  proposition  is  unreasonable. 

16.  Which  way  did  he  go? 

17.  What  book  do  you  most  prefer  ? 

18.  I  know  which  way  the  deer  went. 

19.  I  see  what  books  are  needed. 

20.  A  few  ducks  were  seen  by  the  sportsmen. 

21.  Some  money  was  earned  by  the  boy. 

22.  Each  warrior  drew  his  battle  blade. 

23.  Every  man  stood  to  his  post. 

24.  Neither  man  was  right,  and  yet  I  would  not  censure  either  one. 


126  A  New  English  Ghammar. 

25.  We  were  interested  in  watching  two  large  prairie  fires. 

26.  Fifty  men  were  in  line. 

27.  James  is  the  third  pupil  in  the  row. 

28.  Washington  was  the  first  President  of  the  United  States. 

29.  This  is  a  threefold  punishment. 

30.  Let  us  make  a  double  house. 

An  adjective  is  an  attributive  word  which  expresses  an  attrib- 
ute of  an  object  of  thought  without  asserting  it 

A  simple  adjective  is  one  which  we  cannot  trace  back  to  a 

simpler  form  in  our  language. 

Derivative  adjectives  are  those  which  have  been  formed  bv 
adding  prefixes  or  making  other  changes  in  the  form  of  other  words 
in  our  language. 

Compound  adjectives  are  adjectives  that  have  been  formed 
by  putting  together  two  or  more  words  that  are  used  independently 
in  our  language. 

A  descriptive  adjective  is  an  adjective  whose  chief  useia  to 
make  prominent  an  attribute  of  an  object  of  thought. 

A  limiting  adjective  is  an  adjective  whose  chief  use  is  to 
narrow  the  application  of  a  substantive  word. 

A  pronominal  adjective  is  a  limiting  adjective  which  may 
have  a  substantive  use. . 

A  demonstrative  adjective  is  a  pronominal  adjective  which 
expresses  the  relation  which  an  object  of  thought  bears  to  the 
speaker. 

An  interrog:ative  adjective  is  a  pronominal  adjective  which 
denotes  that  an  attribute  of  an  object  of  thought  is  unknown  and 
sought  for. 

A  relative  adjective  is  a  pronominal  adjective  which  has  a 
connective  use. 

A  quantitative  adjective  is  a  pronominal  adjective  which  ex- 
presses the  attribute  of  quantity  or  number  indefinitely. 

A  distributive  adjective  is  a  pronominal  adjective  which  ex- 
presses the  attribute  of  division  or  separation  or  isolation. 


Comparison.  127 

A  numeral  adjective  is  a  limiting  adjective  which  expresses 
number  or  order  definitely. 

A  cardinal  niinieral  adjective  is  a  numeral  adjective  which 
simply  expresses  number  definitely. 

An  ordinal  numeral  adjective  is  a  numeral  adjective  which 
expresses  the  position  of  a  thing  in  a  series. 

A  multiplicative  adjective  is  a  numeral  adjective  which  im- 
plies multiplication. 

Articles  are  peculiar  kinds  of  limiting  adjectives  placed  before 
substantive  words  to  show  whether  they  are  to  be  taken  in  a  defi- 
nite or  indefinite  sense. 

The  definite  article,  "  the,"  shows  that  the  substantive  word 
which  it  precedes  expresses  some  particular  object  of  thought. 

The  indefinite  article,  "a"  or  "an,"  shows  that  the  substan- 
tive word  which  it  precedes  expresses  an  indefinite  object  of 
thought,  or  that  the  object  of  thought  may  be  any^one^  a  number. 

EXERCISE  62. 

Comparison. 

Explain  the  use  of  the  following  italicized  expressions. 
How  do  they  differ?     What  is  the  cause  of  this  difference? 

1.  Ta// trees  are  easily  blown  over. 

2.  I  am  taller  than  my  father. 

3.  The  tallest  boy  in  the  room  is  also  the  best  scholar. 

4.  The  boy  is  a  good  scholar. 

5.  To  be  is  better  than  to  seem. 

6.  A  teacher  may  be  pleasant  and  at  the  same  time  strict ;  in 
fact,  the  more  pleasant  she  is,  the  more  strict  she  can  afford  to  be. 

7.  While  she  is  the  most  strict  mother  I  know,  she  is  also  the 
most  pleasant  with  her  children. 

What  is  this  difference  among  adjectives,  which  you  have 
just  been  explaining,  called  ?  Define  it.  What  classes  or 
kinds  do  you  discover  ?     State  the  basis  of  your  division. 


128  A  New  English  Geammae. 

Define  and  illustrate  each  kind.  When  is  each  kind  used? 
Observe,  in  the  above  sentences,  how  this  property  of  adject- 
ives is  indicated.  State  the  different  ways  and  illustrate 
each. 

Comparison  is  that  variation  in  the  form  of  the  attributive 
word  which  shows  whether  the  attribute  expressed  by  it  has  been 
compared  with  the  same  attribute  in  another  idea,  or  merely  with 
our  idea  of  that  attribute. 

The  fact  that  attributes  exist  in  ideas  in  different  degrees  gives 
rise  to  comparison. 

The  positive  degree  is  that  form  of  the  attributive  word  which 
shows  that  no  comparison  of  the  attribute  with  the  same  attribute 
in  another  idea  has  been  made. 

The  comparative  tleg"ree  is  that  form  of  the  attributive  word 
which  shows  that  the  attribute  expressed  by  it  has  been  compared 
with  the  same  attribute  in  one  other  idea. 

The  supei'lative  degree  is  that  form  of  the  attributive  word 

which  shows  that  the  attribute  expressed  by  it  has  been  compared 

with  the  same  attribute  in  at  least  two  other  ideas. 

Note.— The  superlative  degree  is  sometimes  used  according  to  good  usage,  and 
in  literature,  when  only  two  ideas  are  compared  as  to  the  attribute  exjjressed  by 
the  attributive  word;  e.  g.,  Which  is  the  best  of  the  two?  The  comparative  is  also 
used  sometimes  when  more  than  two  ideas  are  compared  as  to  the  attribute  ex- 
pressed by  the  attributive  word;  e.  g.,  This  man  is  belter  than  any  of  his  fellows. 
Note.— These  definitions  will  serve  as  well  for  the  adverb  as  for  the  adjective. 
The  teacher  can  easily  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  these  degrees  of  comparison  are 
shown  in  three  ways;  viz.,  by  inflection,  by  composition,  irregularly. 

EXERCISE  63. 
Uses  and  Modifiers  of  Adjectives. 

State  the  use  of  the  italicized  expressions  in  the  following 
sentences  : 

1.  The  white  rose  is  beautiful. 

2.  He  who  dares  stand  for  the  right,  though  he  stand  alone,  is 
truly  brave. 

3.  The  river  is  a  mile  broad. 
4     The  girl  is  cruel  to  her  pets. 


Uses  and  Modifiers  of  Abjectives.  129 

5.  A  child's  kiss 

Set  on  thy  sighing  lips,  shall  make  thee  glad; 
A  poor  man  served  by  thee,  shall  make  thee  rich; 
A  sick  man  helped  by  thee,  shall  make  thee  strong; 
Thou  shalt  be  served  thyself  by  every  sense 
Of  service  which  thou  renderest. 

State  the  uses  of  the  adjective  and  the  modifiers  which 
may  belong  to  it.     Illustrate. 

EXERCISE  64. 

State  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following  words  when 

used  as  adjectives.     Compare  the  words  in  cases  in  which 

such  comparison  will  help  to  bring  out  the  meaning  more 

clearly : 

each  this  which  few 

every  these  what  less 

either  that  the  only 

neither  those  a  or  an 

ea(?h  other  one  another 

Use  the  following  adjectives  correctly,  in  sentences: 
Beautiful,  magnificent,  pretty,  handsome,  awful,  dreadful, 
lovely,  those,  drowned,  fewer,  less,  healthy,  healthful,  much, 
most,  nice,  well,  mad,  angry,  vexed,  plenty,  quite  a,  a  con- 
siderable, a  great,  a  large,  real,  elegant,  opposite,  contrary 

EXERCISE  66. 
From  the  expressions  enclosed  in  the  marks  of  parenthe- 
sis in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  select  the  correct  one: 

1.  The  boy  was  permitted  to  go  (everywhere,  every wheres). 

2.  My  daughter  may  be  described  as  (having  a  light  complex- 
ion, being  light-complected). 

3.  We  thus  had  more,  not  (less,  fewer)  friends. 

4.  One  can  hardly  think  of  a  man  (more,  better)  suited  to  the 
place. 

9 


130  A  New  English  Grammar. 

5.  The  people  had  never  seen  a  (costlier,  more  costlier)  equipage. 

6.  This  is  true  of  (most,  almost)  all  my  friends. 

7.  Nobody  was  (like,  likely)  to  see  him. 

8.  The  town  was  (quite,  plenty)  large  enough. 

9.  There  isn't  a  (sightlier,  finer)  place  in  town. 

10.  Do  you  like  (this,  these)  sort  of  books? 

11.  How  do  yop  like  (that,  those)  kind  of  gowns? 

12.  This  point  is  (easiest,  most  easily)  seen. 

13.  My  conscience  feels  (easily,  easy). 

14.  The  girl  looked  (prettily,  pretty). 

15.  The  teacher  feels  (bad,  badly)  to-day. 

16.  The  party  went  (solid,  solidly)  for  free  trade. 

17.  She  was  not  (only,  alone)  a  true  woman,  but  a  kind  friend  also. 

18.  The  boy  (only)  tried  (only)  three  times. 

19.  That  they  use  money  is  true  of  (both,  each)  (parties,  party). 

20.  (Each,  every)  dog  has  his  day. 

21.  (Each,  every)  day  in  the  year  should  be  the  happiest  day. 

22.  We  should  avoid  (many,  much)  of  the  baser  struggles  of  life. 

23.  He  has  caught  (many,  much)  fish  to-day. 

24.  Will  (all,  the  whole)  finance  ministers  and  upholsterers  and 
confectioners  of  modern  Europe  undertake,  in  joint-stock  company, 
to  make  one  shoe-black  happy  ? 

25.  Of  the  states  of  the  union  named,  the  (first  four,  four  first) 
were  the  last  admitted. 

26.  He  says  some  very  (aggravating,  irritating)  things. 

■     27.  In  consequence  of  (aggravating,  irritating)  circumstances,  he 
was  punished  severely. 

28.  The  statement  seems  hardly  (creditable,  credible). 

29.  Here,  too,  Sydney  Carton  is  an  (exceptional,  exceptionable) 
man. 


The  Verb.  131 

30.  I  shall  not  go  (further,  farther). 

31.  Rice  is  (healthy,  healthful,  wholesome)  food. 

32.  The  scene  from  the  window  was  (luxuriant,  luxurious). 

33.  The  boy  told  a  (pitiable,  pitiful)  story. 

34.  The  spider  spins  a  (subtle,  subtile)  web. 

35.  There  is  a  (continual,  continuous)  hurry  to  be  oflf. 

36.  The  eky  gradually  became  (cloudless,  more  and  more  cloud- 
less). 

37.  The  shouts  gradually  became  (more  and  more  inaudible,  in- 
audible). 

38.  In  this  characteristic,  Coleridge  is  (unique,  most  unique). 

39.  The  vote  was  (so  nearly  unanimous,  so  unanimous)  that  the 
crowd  shouted. 

40.  "We  go  about,  professing  openly  (total  isolation,  the  totalest 
isolation). 

Make  a  complete  outline  of  the  adjective,  showing  defini- 
tion, classes  on  different  bases,  properties  and  syntax. 

EXERCISE  66. 
The  Verb. 

In  the  following  sentences,  state  the  use  of  each  italicized 
expression.  Note  how  one  differs  from  the  other  and  classify 
them.     Name  and  define  each  class : 

1.  The  sun  is  ninety-two  millions  of  miles  away. 

2.  The  soldier  was  without  food  for  three  days. 

3.  Tom  Brown  has  been  in  many  escapades. 

4.  The  sun  gives  light  and  heat. 

5.  The  general  gave  his  order  in  a  very  loud  tone. 

6.  Leland  Stanford  has  given  a  great  deal  of  money  to  found  a 
university  at  Palo  Alto. 


132  A  New  English  Grammar. 

7.  The  minister  frequently  quotes  from  the  Talmud. 

8.  The  speaker  quoted  Webster  in  support  of  his  view. 

9.  The  attorney  has  quoted  much  that  is  not  to  the  point. 

10.  Not  to  know  me,  argues  yourself  unknown. 

11.  They  arjrwed  the  point  an  hour. 

12.  I  have  argued  the  question  from  every  point  of  view. 

Explanation.— From  the  italicized  expressions  above,  the  teacher 
may  lead  the  pupil  to  think  out  the  following: 

A  verb  is  a  word  which  asserts,  or  a  verb  is  a  word  which  ex- 
presses relation  between  thought  subject  and  thought  predicate., 

The  principal  parts  of  verbs  are  those  forms  from  which  all 
the  other  forms  of  the  verb  are  derived.  They  are  the  present,  the 
past,  and  the  past  or  perfect  participle.  We  need  only  to 
know  these  forms  to  understand  all  the  inflections  of  the  verb. 

A  reg-ular  verb  is  a  verb  which  forms  its  past  indicative  and 
perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present  indicative;  e.g., 
learn,  learned,  learned;  love,  loved,  loved 

An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  which  forms  its  past  indicative  and 
perfect  participle  in  some  other  way  than  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the 
present  indicative;  e.  g.,  write,  ivrote,  ivritten. 

A  pure  verb  or  copulative  verb  is  a  relation  word  which 
merely  asserts  a  thought  predicate  of  a  thought  subject,  or  a  pure 
verb  is  a  relation  word  which  expresses  the  relation  between 
thought  subject  and  thought  predicate  only. 

Note.— The  verb  "  be  "  in  its  various  forms  is  the  only  pure  verb  in  the  English 
language.  But  there  are  some  other  verbs  which  are  almost  always  used  in  the 
same  way.  They  are  as  follows:  become,  grow,  get,  turn,  remain,  continue,  stay, 
seem,  appear,  look.sound,  smell,  feel,  stand,  sit,  go,  move,  and  perhaps  a  few  others 

(See  Whitney's  Essentials  of  English  Grammar,  Par.  353,  etc.) 

An  attributive  verb  is  a  verb  which  expresses  an  attribute  of 
an  object  of  thought  and  asserts  it ;  e.  g.,  He  tells  the  story  well. 

Note.— The  exercises  that  follow  are  intended  to  give  the  pupils  a  great  deal  of 
practice  in  learning  the  principal  parts  of  verbs. 


Irregular  Verbs. 

133 

EXERCISE  67.— Irregular  Verbs. 

Be  able  to  give  the 

principal 

parts  of  the  following  verbs  : 

abide 

do 

lead 

shake 

stick 

awake 

draw 

lean 

shall 

sting 

be 

dream 

leap 

shear 

stink 

bear 

drink 

learn 

shed 

stride 

beat 

drive 

leave 

shine 

strike 

begin 

dwell 

lend 

shoe 

string 

bend 

eat 

let 

shoot 

strive 

bereave 

fall 

lie 

show 

strow,-ew 

beseech 

feed 

light 

shred 

sweat 

bid 

feel 

lose 

shrink 

swear 

bind 

fight 

make 

shut 

sweep 

bite 

find 

may 

sing 

swim 

bleed 

flee 

mean 

sink 

swing 

blow 

fling 

meet 

sit 

take 

break 

fly 

mete 

slay 

teach 

breed 

forsake 

must 

,           sleep 

tear 

bring 

freeze 

need 

/           slide 

tell 

build 

freight 

ought V 

sling 

think 

burn 

get 

pen 

vslink 

thrive 

burst 

gild 

put 

slit 

throw 

buy 

gird 

quit 

smell 

thrust 

can 

give 

quoth 

smite 

tread 

cast 

go 

read 

sow 

wake 

catch 

grind 

reave 

speak 

wax 

chide 

grow 

rend 

speed 

wear 

choose 

liang 

rid 

spell 

weave 

cleave 

have 

ride 

spend 

weep 

cling 

hear 

ring 

spill 

wend 

clothe 

heave 

rise 

spin 

wet 

come 

hide 

run 

spit 

whet 

cost 

hit 

say 

split 

will 

creej) 

hold 

see 

spoil 

win 

crow 

hurt 

seek 

spread 

wind 

cut 

keep 

seethe 

spring 

wit 

dare 

kneel 

sell 

stand 

work 

deal 

knit 

send 

stave 

wring 

dig 

know 

set 

steal 

write 

134  A  New  English  Grammar. 

EXERCISE  68. 
Forms  of  Irregular  Verbs. 

Be  able  to  fill  the  following  blanks  with  any  appropriate 
verb  from  the  preceding  list.  Omit  the  word,  it,  if  necessary 
to  make  the  form  suit  the  meaning  of  the  verb: 

1.  I it  now. 

2.  I it  a  week  ago. 

3.  I  have  — : —  it  lately. 

4.  He it  now. 

5.  He it  a  week  ago. 

6.  He  has it  lately. 

7.  They  may to-day. 

8.  They yesterday. 

9.  They  had before  you  came. 

EXERCISE  69. 
Speak  and  Write. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  the  proper  forms  of  speak 
and  ivrite. 

1.  She very  well. 

2.  You  have too  soon. 

3.  I  should  have sooner. 

4.  Have  they to  you? 

5.  Has  James to  you  about  it  ? 

6.  Who  said  you  had about  it? 

EXERCISE  70. 
Do. 

Supply  the  proper  forms  of  do: 

1.  I as  I  was  told. 

2.  My  work  is . 

3.  Who the  mischief? 

4.  The  boy  has his  work  well. 

5.  Who  said  I that  ? 

6.  Sarah it  herself. 

7.  Mary her  example. 


Forms  of  Irregular  Verbs.  135 

EXERCISE  71. 
Choose. 

Insert  the  proper  forms  of  choose: 

1.  I the  blue  pencil. 

2.  Americans freedom  of  thought. 

3.  I to  go  ashore. 

4.  Henry  was first. 

5.  My  sister  herself the  goods. 

G.    He  should  have  been . 

7.     Will  you first? 

EXERCISE  72 
Raise  and  Rise. 

Insert  the  proper  forms  of  rai^e  or  rise  in  the  following : 

1.  He from  the  chair. 

2.  I  have as  early  as  five. 

3.  He  that  would  thrive  must by  five. 

4.  Have  you the  window  ? 

5.  Have  you from  your  chair  ? 

6.  What  makes  the  bread ? 

7.  Yeast the  bread. 

8.  The  sun at  six. 

9.  The  river  has a  great  deal. 

10.  I  saw  the  sun this  morning. 

11.  I  cannot this  window. 

12.  The  sun at  five  this  morning. 

13.  The  sun  has . 


14.     I  wish  you  would from  the  floor. 


136  A  New  English  GrajMmar. 

EXERCISE  73. 
Forms  of  Other  Verbs. 

In  the  following  sentences,  fill  the  blanks  with  the  proper 
forms  of  lie,  lay,  sit,  set,  teach,  learn,  seem,  appear,  love,  or  like  : 

1.  The  boy up  straight. 

.  2.  I  have up  long  enough. 

3. the  lamp  on  the  table  and by  me. 

4.  James for  his  picture  to-day. 

5.  I  can my  lesson. 

6.  Will  you me  to  write  ? 

7.  How  long  will  it  take  you  to me  ? 

8.  I  cannot my  lesson. 

9.  Will  you me  to  skate? 

10.  Do  not  ask  me  to you. 

11.  You  will  not me  to  swim. 

12.  He down  to  rest. 

13.  He the  book  down. 

14.  He  had down  to  rest. 

15.  He  had the  book  down. 

16.  He  has the  book  down. 

17.  I  will down  and  rest. 

18.  I  will my  pen  down. 

19.  A  man  is on  the  porch. 

20.  James  is out  tomato  plants. 

21.  The  sun  is  just . 

22.  I  am still. 

23.  I  am  tired  of so  still. 

24.  She  is near  the  window. 

25.  The sun  looks  red. 

26.  Belle  is under  a  tree  in  the  yard. 

27.  She  is to  be  satisfied. 


Forms  of  Other  Verbs.  137 

28.  The  dress to  be  new. 

29.  The  day fine. 

30.  Did  she to  be  contented? 

81.  The  moon over  the  hill. 

32.  It to  be  red. 

33.  How  did  he to  be? 

34.  The  man to  be  well  pleased. 

35.  I  hope  you  will well. 

36.  I  can well  if  I  wish  to. 

37.  The  storm to  be  passing  over. 

38.  The  sun between  the  clouds. 

39.  I my  brother. 

40.  The  boy his  sister. 

41.  Do  you oranges  ? 

42.  The  child its  parents,  who  arc  dead. 

43.  I his  appearance  very  much. 

44.  Do  you amusements? 

4.5.  They Nat  Goodwin. 

Note.— Other  devices  requiring  the  pupils  to  use  the  diflerent  forms  of  irregular 
verbs  in  sentences,  should  be  invented  by  the  teacher.  For  example,  the  teacher, 
rising  from  her  chair,  says : 

"What  do  I  do,  Kate?" 

Kate :    "  You  rise  from  your  chair." 

Teacher:    "  What  did  I  do,  Tom?" 

Tom :    "  You  rose  from  your  chair." 

Teacher:    "  What  have  I  done,  Ned?" 

Ned :    "  You  have  risen  from  your  chair." 

The  teacher  then  breaks  a  piece  of  chalk,  or  writes  on  the  board,  or  chooses  a 
book,  or  speaks  loudly,  etc.,  etc.,  and  asks  the  same  questions.  The  exercise  may 
be  continued  at  will. 

EXERCISE  74. 

Classify  the  following  italicized  expressions  on  the  basis 
previously  discovered.  State  how  the  attributes  expressed 
differ.  State  what  classes  of  verbs  w^e  have  on  basis  of  this 
difference.     Define  and  illustrate  each  class: 

1.  Hitch  your  wagon  to  a  star.        ,,^     ^ 

2.  Fulton  invented  the  steamboat. 

3.  The  robin  picked  the  crumbs  after  hopping  in  at  the  window. 


138  A  New  English  Grammar. 

4.    We  heard  a  highly  instructive  lecture.  .^ 
*  5.    We  ivalked  along  the  fragrant  lanes. 

6.  We  talked  of  pleasant  times  in  olden  days. 

7.  We  journeyed  through  the  fields  together. 

8.  John  Anderson,  my  jo  John, 
We  clam  the  hills  thegither; 
And  mony  a  canty  day,  John, 
We've /lad  wi' ane  anither:   . 
Now  we  maun  totter  down,  John, 
But  hand  in  hand  we'll  go; 
And  sleep  thegither  at  the  foot, 
John  Anderson,  my  jo. 

On  basis  of  the  nature  of  the  attribute  expressed  by  attributive 
verbs,  they  are  divided  into  transitive  and  intransitive. 

^-^  A  transitive  verb  is  an  attributive  verb,  which  expresses  an  at- 
■   tribute  of  such  a  nature  as  to  imply  an  object  of  thought  which  it 
may  directly  aflect;  e.  g..  Good  men  love  the' truth. 

^    An  intransitive  verb  is  an  attributive  verb  which  expresses  an 
/^attribute  o-f  such  a  nature  that  it  does  not  imply  an  object  of  thought 
which  it  may  directly  affect;  e.  g..    They  walked  through  pleasant 
groves  and  shady  lanes. 

EXERCISE  75. 

Special  Classes  of  Verbs. 

State  how  the  following  italicized  expressions  dififer  from 
the  other  verbs  with  which  you  have  been  dealing.  What 
are  such  verbs  called?     Define  and  illustrate  further: 

1.  "  It  snows!"  cries  the  schoolboy. 

2.  It  rains  the  livelong  day,  and  mournful  is  the  house. 

3.  They  die  the  death  of  the  righteous. 

4.  I  hsive  fought  a  good  fight ;  I  have  finished  the  faith. 

5.  He  blew  a  blast  upon  the  winding  horn. 

6.  I  will  run  as  tar  as  God  has  any  ground. 


Special  Classes  of  Verbs.  139 

7.  You  call  me  unbeliever,  cut-throat  dog, 
And  spit  upon  my  Jewish  p;aber(Hne, 

And  all  for  use  of  that  which  is  mine  own.  ' 

8.  I  will  buy  with  you,  sell  with  you,  talk  with  you,  walk  with 
you,  and  so  following,  but  I  will  not  eat  with  j^ou,  drink  with  you, 
nor  pray  with  you. 

9.  If  I  forget  thee,  O  Jerusalem,  let  my  right  hand  forget  her 
cunning. 

10.  I  will  never  leave  thee,  nor  forsake  thee. 

11.  I  may  never  see  you  again. 

12.  I  may  neither  choose  whom  I  would  nor  refuse  whom  I  dis- 
like. 

13.  Is  it  not  hard,  Nerissa,  that  I  cannot  choose  one  nor  refuse 
none? 

14.  "  By  my  troth,"  quoth  he,  "  you're  a  bold  man." 

15.  It  must  not  be. 

16.  One  ought  to  love  his  neighbor  as  himself. 

17.  Every  one  owes  himself  an  education. 

18.  He  forces  himself  to  be  generous. 

19.  Christ  made  the  water  wine. 

20.  The  traveler  walked  himself  weary. 

21.  The  singer  sang  her  throat  hoarse. 

22.  The  lightning  struck  him  dead. 

23.  He  has  told  the  story  many  times. 

24.  This  above  all:  to  thine  own  self  be  true, 
And  it  must  follow,  as  the  night  the  day. 
Thou  canst  not  then  be  false  to  any  man. 

25.  Child,  thou  ivilt  not  leave  thy  mother  so  ? 

26.  Thou  shall  not  bear  false  witness  against  thy  neighbor. 

27.  We  do  reject  the  ofTer. 

28.  What  should  such  fellows  as  I  do  crawling  between  earth  and 
heaven. 

29.  He  does  confess  he  feels  himself  distracted; 

But  from  what  cause,  he  will  by  no  means  speak. 


140  A  New  English  Grammar. 

Get  the  literal  meaning  of  the  following  words:  have,  can, 
may,  must,  do,  be,  shall,  and  will.    (See  Dictionary.) 

There  are  some  special  classes  of  verbs  on  basis  of  peculiarities 
])elonging  to  them.  The  principal  classes  of  this  kind  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

An  iiuporsonal  or  iinipersonal  verb  is  a  verb  which  has  the 
pronoun  it  for  its  subject  when  it  expresses  no  particular  object  of 
thought,  but  only  helps  to  express  that  some  action  or  process  is 
going  on ;  e.  g.,  It  Yains. 

A  cognate  verb  is  a  verb  which  expresses  an  attribute  that 

brings  into  existence  a  direct  object,  which  is  formed  by  making  an 

object  of  thought  out  of  the  attribute  expressed  by  the  verb  ;  e.  g., 

Let  us  die  the  death  of  the  righteous. 

Note.— Some  grammarians  speak  of  a  cognate  object.  It  is  evident  from  the 
above  statement  that  a  cognate  object  is  only  one  kind  of  direct  object.  It  is  a 
direct  object  which  is  brought  into  existence  by  thinking  the  attribute  expressed 
by  the  verb  into  an  object  of  thought. 

A  redundant  verb  is  a  verb  which  has  more  than  one  form  for 
some  one  or  more  of  its  principal  parts;  e.  g.,  run,  ran  or  run,  run. 

A  defective  verb  is  a  verb  which  is  wanting  in  some  one  or 
more  of  its  principal  parts  ;  e.  g.,  may,  might, . 

A  reflexive  verb  is  a  verb  which  expresses  an  attribute  that 
affects  an  object  of  thouglit  which  is  identical  with  the  thought 
subject;  e.  g.,  I  hurt  myself. 

A  factitive  or  causative  verb  is  a  verb  which  expresses  an 
attribute  that  is  the  cause  of  a  change  in  the  object  of  thought 
which  it  affects ;  e.  g.,  Christ  made  the  water  wine. 

An  auxiliary  verb  is  a  verb  which  aids  in  forming  the  tense, 
mode,  and  voice  forms  of  other  verbs ;  e.  g.,  may,  can. 

EXERCISE  76. 
May  and  Can. 
Fill  the  following  blanks  with  may  or  can: 

1.     I  ask  a  question  ? 

2.  I start  yet  to-night. 

3.  Please, I  take  your  book? 


Shall  and  Will.  141 

4.  The  boy do  better  work. 

5.  How  far you  ride  ? 

6.  The  eagle carry  off  a  child. 

7.    you  see  where  you  are  going? 

8.  You take  a  walk. 

9.    stars  be  suns? 

10.    How you  bear  to  leave  ? 

State  the  difference  between  the  meaning  of  the  auxiliaries 
may  and  can. 

EXERCISE  77. 
Shall  and  "Will. 
State  the  meaning  conveyed  by  the  following  italicized 
expressions : 

1.  I  shall  see  Salvini. 

2.  I  shall  be  drowned ;  no  one  can  save  me. 

3.  You  shall  go. 

4.  He  shall  return  at  once. 

5.  Shall  I  assist  you  in  mounting  ? 

6.  Shall  I  be  obliged  to  pay  the  debt  for  him  ? 

7.  Shall  you  be  at  school  this  afternoon  ? 

8.  Shall  you  suffer  for  his  offense  ? 

9.  Shall  the  boy  bring  the  carriage  ? 

10.  "  I  will  be  revenged,"  said  Philip. 

11 .  I  will  be  a  good  boy. 

12.  You  will  find  me  there. 

13.  You  'will  obey  me. 

14.  He  will  leave  to-morrow. 

15.  He  will  apologize  to  you. 

16.  Will  I  give  up  my  principle  ? 

17.  Will  you  persist  in  your  reckless  course  ? 

18.  Will  the  deed  return  to  the  doer? 

19.  Will  he  let  you  have  your  choice? 

20.  Will  the  house  that  is  built  upon  a  rock,  fall? 

USES   OK    shall    and    WILL. 

I.     Shall. 

1.     In  the  declarative  sentence. 

a.     With  subject  of  the  first  person. 

(1).    To  express  simple  futurity. 


142  A  New  English  Grammar. 

(2).    To  express  futurity  accompanied  by  neces- 
sity in  external  circumstances,  not  under 
the  control  of  the  thought  subject. 
b.     With  subject  of  second  or  third  person. 

(1).    To  express  futurity  accompanied  by  neces- 
sity which  is  not  under  the  control  of  the 
actor. 
2.    In  the  interrogative  sentence. 

a.  With  subject  of  the  first  person. 

(1).  Futurity  accompanied  by  the  will  of  the  per- 
son addressed. 

(2).  Futurity  accompanied  by  necessity  in  ex- 
ternal circumstances. 

b.  With  subject  of  the  second  person. 

(1).     Simple  futurity. 

(2).  Futurity  accompanied  by  necessity  in  ex- 
ternal circumstances. 

c.  With  subject  of  the  third  person. 

(1).    Futurity  accompanied  bythewillof  the  per- 

„^.„  son  addressed. 

II.     Will. 

1.  In  the  declarative  sentence. 

a.  With  subject  of  the  first  person. 

(1).  To  express  futurity  accompanied  by  the  re- 
solve of  the  speaker. 

(2).  To  express  futurity  with  the  assent  or  prom- 
ise of  the  speaker. 

b.  With  a  subject  of  the  second  or  third  person. 

(1).     To  express  simple  futurity. 
(2.)    To  express  futurity  accompanied  by  the  re- 
solve or  determination  of  the  speaker. 

2.  In  the  interrogative  sentence. 

a.  With  subject  of  the  first  person. 

(1).  To  express  futurity  accompanied  by  the  re- 
solve of  the  speaker. 

b.  With  subject  of  the  second  person. 

(1).  To  express  futurity  accompanied  by  deter- 
mination on  the  part  of  the  thought  sub- 
ject. 


Mode.  143 

c.    With  subject  of  third  person. 

(1).    To  express  simple  futurity. 
(2).    To  express  futurity  accompanied  by  the  will 
of  the  thought  subject. 
Fill  the  following  blanks  with  the  proper  forms  of  shall  or 
will: 

1.  He preach  in  the  evening. 

2.     you  go  with  us? 

3.  You have  your  way. 

4v  You  can  learn,  if  you study.  . 

5.  We vote  early. 

6.  We go  in  spite  of  you. 

7.  They go,  if  they  can. 

8.  She not  be  allowed  to  go  home  alone. 

9.  You have  gone  before  we  arrive. 

10.  We be  avenged. 

11.  If  you  see  him,  you find  him  busy. 

12.    you  dine  with  us  to-morrow  ? 

13.  I read  awhile. 

14.     I  see  him? 

15.    I  read  to  you? 

16.  You have  your  money  to-day. 

17.  He be  punished  for  it. 

18.  I be  happy  to  accept. 

19.  I die  ere  I obey  him. 

20.  God  not  give  us  any  more  truth  than  we  are  willing 

to  live. 

EXERCISE  78. 

Mode. 

State  the  relation,  in  each  case,  in  the  following  sentences, 
between  the  thought  expressed  by  the  sentence,  and  the  fact 
in  the  external  world.  State  whether  the  thought  expressed 
by  the  sentence  is  a  reality ;  or  whether  there  is  some  doubt 
in  the  mindas  to  its  reality;  or  whether  it  is  a  mere  supposi- 
tion, and  there  is  no  fact  in  the  external  world  corresponding 


144  A  New  English  Gkammak. 

to  it;  or  if  the  thought  in  the  mind  corresponds  to  the  fact 
in  the  external  world  on  account  of  necessity  in  external 
circumstances,  or  will,  outside  of  that  of  the  actor: 
»    1.    I  can  see  the  towers  of  London. 

2.  Blessed  is  the  man  that  walketh  not  in  the  counsels  of  the 
ungodly. 

3.  The  mill  will  never  grind  with  the  water  that  is  past. 

4.  My  soul  to-day  is  far  away, 
Sailing  the "Vesuvian  bay. 

5.  The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword. 

6.  His  work,  in  many  respects,  is  very  imperfect. 

7.  Slovenliness  and  indelicacy  of  character  generally  go  together. 
^       8.    When  thy  friend  is  denounced  openly  and  boldly,  espouse 

his  cause. 

9.    Plutarch  calls  lying  the  vice  of  slaves. 

10.  An  upright  mind  will  never  be  at  a  loss  to  discern  what  is 
just  and  true,  lovely,  honest,  and  of  good  report. 

11.  If  't  were  done  when  't  is  done,  then  't  were  well. 
It  were  done  quickly. 

12.  If  he  has  been  here,  I  have  not  seen  him.  f  ?-v^»  ^ 

13.  If  he  were  here,  I  should  like  to  meet  him.  a 

14.  If  thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not  died.cvH.^ 

15.  If  thou  be  brave,  I  will  conduct  thee  through  this  wilderness. 

16.  Were  it  not  for  leaving  thee,  my  child,  I  could  die  happy. 
'  ■/  17.     He  may  study  his  lessons. 

18.  He  may  take  my  book. 

19.  If  thou  hadst  said  him  nay,  it  had  been  sin. 

20.  It  must  be  true. 

21.  Give  me  your  hand. 

22.  Let  this  cup  pass  from  me. 

23.  Down,  slave,  behold  the  governor! 
Down,  Down!  and  beg  for  mercy. 

24.  Thou  Shalt  not  steal. 

25.  Turn  ye !  Turn  ye  again,  0  Israel ! 


Mode.  145 

What  property  of  the  verb  is  illustrated  in  the  preceding 
sentences  ?  Define.  State  the  different  kinds  or  classes  and 
illustrate  each. 

Mode  is  that  attribute  of  the  verb  which  expresses  the  man- 
ner of  the  assertion.  Mode  is  that  attribute  of  the  verb  which  ex- 
presses the  phases  of  relation  which  exist  between  thought  subject 
and  thought  predicate.  Mode  is  that  attribute  of  the  verb  which 
expresses  the  relation  between  the  thought  in  the  mind  and  the 
fact  or  reality  in  the  external  world. 

The  following  relations  may  exist  between  the  thought  in  the 
mind  and  the  fact  or  reality  in  the  external  world: 

1.  The  thought  in  the  mind  may  correspond  to  a  reality  in  the 
external  world  and  the  mind  may  know  it;  e.  g.,  Franklin  was  a 
philosopher. 

2.  The  thought  in  the  mind  may  or  may  not  correspond  to  a 
reality  in  the  external  world  and  the  mind  is  in  doubt  about  it — 
doubtful  mind  as  to  an  actual  relation;  e.  g.,  If  it  be  raining,  I  must 
remain. 

3.  The  thought  in  the  mind  is  a  mere  supposition  and  there  is 
no  reality  in  the  external  world  corresponding  to  it,  and  the  mind 
knows  it ;  e.  g.,  If  my  father  were  here,  I  should  be  happy.  ' 

4.  The  thought  in  the  mind  corresponds  to  a  fact  or  reality  in 
the  external  world  on  account  of  necessity  in  external  circum- 
stances, or  will,  outside  of  that  of  the  actor;  e.  g.,  Sing  me  a  merry 
lay,  my  lads. 

The  first  relation  is  expressed  by  the  indicative  mode;  the  sec- 
ond and  third,  by  the  subjunctive;  the  fourth,  by  the  imperative. 

The  indicative  mode  is  that  mode  or  manner  of  assertion 
which  declares  the  relation  seen  between  thought  subject  and 
thought  predicate  to  be  a  reality.  The  indicative  mode  is  that 
mode  or  manner  of  assertion  which  shows  that  the  thought  in  the 
mind  corresponds  to  the  fact  in  the  external  world — the  internal 
corresponds  to  the  external. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  that  mode  or  manner  of  assertion 
which  indicates  that  there  is  some  doubt  in  the  mind  as  to  whether 

10 


/ 


146  A  New  English  Grammar. 

the  thought  in  the  mind  corresponds  to  a  reality  in  the  external 
world,  or  that  the  thought  in  the  mind  is  a  mere  supposition  and 
there  is  no  fact  in  the  external  world  corresponding  to  it. 

The  imperative  mode  is  that  mode  or  manner  of  assertion 
which  shows  that  the  thought  in  the  mind  corresponds  to  the 
reality  in  the  external  world  on  account  of  necessity  in  external 
circumstances  or  will  outside  of  that  of  the  actor. 

Note.— Some  grammarians  give  four  modes;  viz>,  indicative,  subjunctive,  poten- 
tial, and  imperative.'  There  is  no  serious  objection  to  this  division,  but  it  does  not 
seem  to  be  necessary,  as  all  relations  between  thought  subjects  and  thought  predi- 
cates may  be  classified  under  the  three  given  above.  (See  Whitney's  Essentials  of 
English  Grammar,  par.  JT9  and  480.) 

EXERCISE  79. 

Tense. 

State  whether  the  relation  seen  to  exist  between  the 
thought  subject  and  thought  predicate,  as  expressed  in  each 
of  the  following  sentences,  is  a  relation  which  is  seen  to  ex- 
ist in  present  time,  or  past  time,  or  future  time.  State 
whether  we  use  one  or  more  than  one  of  these  periods  of 
time  in  locating  the  relations  : 

1.  The  leaves  tremble  in  the  wind. 

2.  The  sun  is  shining  brightly. 

3.  Columbus  discovered  America  in  1492. 

4.  We  saw  General  Grant. 

5.  We  shall  attend  the  World's  Fair. 

6.  Will  you  permit  that  I  shall  stand  condemned  ? 

7.  Feelest  thou  not,  0  world,  the  earthquake  of  his  chariot 
thundering  up  Olympus? 

8.  How  sleep  the  brave,  that  sink  to  rest 
By  all  their  country's  wishes  blest! 

9.  My  sister  was  gathering  flowers, 

10.    Be  aye  sticking  in  a  tree,  Jack;  it'll  be    growing  while  ye're 
sleeping. 


Tense.  147 

11.  I  have  cautioned  you  frequently. 

12.  Wilfred  had  roused  him  to  reply. 

13.  When  I  shall  have  hrought  them  into  the  land,  then  will  they 
turn  to  other  gods. 

14.  I  have  sung  my  song. 

15.  I  had  sung  the  song  before  you  arrived. 

16.  I  shall  have  sung  the  song  before  you  arrive. 

17.  By  slow  degrees  the  whole  truth  has  come  out. 

18.  Matilda  had  taken  her  accustomed  place  in  the  window-seat. 

19.  I  shall  have  seen  all  the  wonders,  when  I  write  to  you. 

20.  Plans  and  elevations  of  their  palace  have  been  made  for 
them,  and  are  now  being  engraved  for  the  public. 

State  the  property  of  the  verb  ilhistrated  in  the  preceding 
sentences.  Define.  State  the  different  classes  or  kinds,  and 
define  and  illustrate  each. 

Tense  is  that  property  of  the  verb  which  indicates  the  time  of 
the  relation  between  thought  subject  and  thought  predicate. 

The  absolute  tenses  are  those  tenses  which  use  only  one  period 
of  time  in  indicating  the  time  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the  verb. 
They  are  as  follows: 

The  present  tense  is  that  absolute  tense  which  uses  the  period 
of  speaking  in  fixing  the  time  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the  verb. 

The  past  tense  is  that  absolute  tense  which  uses  the  period  of 
time  wholly  past  in  fixing  the  time  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the 
verb. 

The  future  tense  is  that  absolute  tense  which  uses  the  period  of 
time  to  come  in  fixing  the  time  of  the  relation  expressedby  the  verb. 

The  relative  tenses  are  those  tenses  which  use  two  periods  of 
time  in  fixing  the  time  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the  verb.  They 
are  as  follows : 

The  present  perfect  tense  is  that  relative  tense  which  fixes 
the  time  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the  verb  in  a  period  of  time 
which  includes  a  part  of  the  past  up  to  the  present,  including  the 
instant  of  speaking. 


148  A  New  English  Grammar. 

The  past  perfect  tense  is  that  relative  tense  which  fixes  the 
time  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the  verb  in  a  period  of  time  pre- 
vious to  some  period  of  past  time. 

The  future  perfect  tense  is  that  relative  tense  which  fixes 
the  time  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the  verb  in  a  future  time  pre- 
vious to  some  other  future  time. 

EXERCISE  80. 

^    Uses  of  Tense  Forms. 

State  the  tense  of  each  verb  in  the  following  sentences; 
state  the  time  in  which  the  relation  between  thought  subject 
and  thought  predicate  is  seen  to  exist : 

1.  He  hears  his  daughter's  voice. 

2.  Man  is  mortal. 

3.  The  man  travels  for  Hermand  and  Knox. 

4.  My  brother  goes  to  New  York  to-morrow  on  business. 

5.  They  cross  the  river ;  they  fire  the  town  ;  they  form  under 
cover  of  the  smoke;  they  advance  up  the  hill  ;  they  are  driven  back. 

6.  I  see  the  nation  gathering  her  forces  for  the  mighty  struggle; 
they  put  forth  one  mighty  efi'ort  and  the  end  comes. 

7.  The  little  birds  sang  gayly  in  the  trees. 

8.  He  preached  in  this  little  hamlet  for  many  years. 

9.  If  I  should  be  there,  you  would  be  surprised. 

10.  If  my  sister  were  here,  she  would  enjoy  the  lecture. 

11.  The  teachers  will  go  to  Denver  the  coming  summer. 

12.  He  will  wander  in  the  woods  day  after  day. 

13.  Milton  has  given  us  Comus. 

14.  The  hour  shall  not  strike  till  I  have  gained  my  point. 

15.  He  had  written  the  poem  before  this  book  appeared. 

16.  If  I  had  walked  rapidly,  I  should  have  overtaken  you. 

17.  At  the  close  of  this  year,  I  shall  have  finished  my  course. 

18.  The  truth  itself  is  not  believed 
From  one  who  often  has  deceived. 


Voice.  149 

EXERCISE  81. 

Voice. 

State  concerning  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences, 
whether  the  attribute  expressed  by  them  is  an  attribute  ex- 
erted by  the  thought  subject  and  directed  away  from  it, 
or  whether  it  is  exerted  by  some  other  object  of  thought  and 
is  directed  toward  or  exerted  upon  the  thought  subject: 

1.  The  engine  draws  the  train. 

2.  The  story  has  been  told  by  many  writers. 

3.  England  had  taxed  the  colonies  unjustly. 

4.  Marco  Polo  tells  us  strange  stories. 

5.  The  Mississippi  was  discovered  by  De  Soto  in  1541. 

6.  The  prudent  neither  waste  time  nor  money. 

7.  Paris  was  besieged  by  the  Prussians  in  1871. 

8.  Every  patriot  will  defend  the  flag. 

9.  Our  friends  came  last  week. 

10.  We  were  entertained  in  royal  style. 

11.  The  singer  was  fatigued  by  his  exertions. 

12.  The  traveler  was  weary. 

13.  The  minister  was  fatigued. 

14.  I  go  where  duty  calls  me. 

15.  The  soldier  was  sleepy  and  tired.   • 

Name  and  define  the  property  of  the  verb  illustrated  in 
the  preceding  sentences.  State  the  different  kinds  or  classes. 
Define  and  illustrate  each  class.  State  and  illustrate  the  dif- 
ferent ways  in  which  the  passive  voice  may  be  formed  from 
the  active.  When  does  the  combination  of  the  past  partici- 
ple with  the  different  forms  of  the  verb  be  form  the  passive 
voice;  when  does  it  not  form  the  passive  voice? 

Voice  is  that  property  of  the  attributive  verb  which  shows 
whether  the  attribute  expressed  by  it  is  exerted  by  the  thought 


150  A  New  English  Grammar. 

subject  and  directed  away  from  it  or  is  exerted  by  some  other  object 
of  thought  and  directed  toward  the  thought  subject. 

The  active  voice  is  that  voice  which  shows  that  the  attribute 
expressed  by  the  verb  is  exerted  or  put  forth  by  the  thought  sub- 
ject and  is  directed  away  from  it. 

The  passive  voice  is  that  voice  which  shows  that  the  attribute 
expressed  by  the  verb  is  exerted  by  an  object  of  thought  other  than 
the  thought  subject  and  is  directed  toward  or  exerted  upon  the 
thought  subject. 

The  passive  voice  is  formed  by  using  some  form  of  the  verb  be 

with  the  past  participle  of  the  verb ;  e.  g.,    The  tree  was  blown  down. 

Note.— The  forms  of  the  verb,  be,  unite  with  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  to 
form  the  passive  voice  when  the  participle  denotes  actual  endurance  of  the  attri- 
bute expressed  by  the  participle,  on  the  part  of  the  thought  subject;  e.  g.,  He  was 
fatigued  by  his  exertions.  When  the  past  participle  denotes  condition  as  a  result 
of  action  its  combination  with  the  verb,  be,  docs  not  form  the  passive  voice;  e.  g., 
He  was  f aligned.    (See  Whitney's  Essentials  of  English  Grammar,  par.  302.) 

The  active  voice  may  be  changed  to  the  passive  in  any  one 

of  the  following  ways: 

1.  By  making  the  direct  objective  modifier  of  the  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  the  subject  of  the  sentence  in  the  passive  voice;  e.  g., 

She  canned  the  fruit,     The  fruit  was  canned  by  her. 

2.  When  we  have  a  prepositional  phrase  modifying  the  verb, 
we  frequently  separate  the  preposition  and  the  principal  word  of 
the  phrase,  making  the  principal  word  of  the  phrase,  in  the  active 
voice,  the  subject  of  the  sentence  in  the  passive,  and  attaching  the 
preposition  to  the  verb  ;  e.  g.,  We  had  lived  in  that  house  a  long  time, 
That  house  had  been  lived  in  a  long  time  by  us. 

3.  When  a  verb  is  followed  by  a  direct  objective  modifier  and  is 
modified  by  a  prepositional  phrase,  either  the  direct  objective  mod- 
ifier or  the  principal  word  of  the  prepositional  phrase  may  become 
the  subject  of  the  sentence  in  the  passive;  e.  g.,  We  take  no  notice  of 
such  fellows,  No  notice  is  taken  of  such  fellows  by  us.  Such  fellows  are 
taken  no  notice  of  by  us. 

4.  The  indirect  objective  modifier  in  the  active  voice,  may  be- 
come the  subject  of  the  sentence  in  the  passive;  e.  g.,  I  told  him 
to  leave,    He  was  told  to  leave  by  me. 


Voice.  151 

The  passive  voice  may  be  used  in  tlie  following  ways : 

1.  When  the  agent  is  unknown;  e.g.,  The  dress  was  made  by  a 
person  tvhose  name  I  do  not  know. 

2.  When  we  wish  to  conceal  the  agent;  e.  g.,  The  story  tvas  told 
to  me  by  a  person  whose  name  I  ivill  not  mention. 

3.  When  we  wish  to  make  prominent  the  direct  or  indirect  ob- 
ject in  the  active;  e.  g.,     The  boy  was  abused  by  his  conqjanion. 

4.  To  preserve  the  unity  of  the  sentence;  e.g.,  The  dress  luas 
bought  and  worn  by  the  same  lady. 

5.  To  give  a  pleasing  variety  to  discourse;  e.  g.,  They  sang  a 
song;  Emily  gave  a  recitation;  then  the  address  icas  delivered. 

6.  To  avoid  the  frequent  use  of  the  pronoun,  I;  e.  g.,  The  phe- 
nomenon was  not  observed  again  for  some  time. 

Note.— Since  the  passive  voice,  as  usually  considered  by  grammarians,  is  that 
form  in  which  the  direct  objective  modifier  in  the  active  becomes  the  subject  of  the 
sentence  in  the  passive,  voice  belongs  only  to  transitive  verbs,  because  only  transi- 
tive verbs  take  direct  objective  modifiers.  But  as  shown  above,  voice  means  more 
than  this  and  hence  is  not  strictly  limited  to  transitive  verbs. 

(See  Whitney's  Essentials  of  English  Grammar,  par.  304.) 

Two  classes  of  active  verbs  may  be  given: 

1.  Those  active  in  form  and  meaning;  e.  g..  The  mother  loves  her 
child. 

2.  Those  active  in  form  and  passive  in  meaning;  e.  g.,  The  child 
hurt  itself. 

Two  classes  of  passive  verbs  may  be  given: 

1.  Those  passive  in  form  and  meaning;  e.g.,  The  train  ivas 
wrecked  on  the  bridge. 

2.  Those  passive  in  form  and  not  passive  in  meaning,  sometimes 
called  the  neuter  voice  by  grammarians;  e.g.,  The  woman  tvas  de- 
voted to  her  child. 

(See  Lee  and  Hadley,  p.  194.) 

State  all  the  uses  of  the  passive  voice.  Illustrate  each  by 
two  or  more  examples. 


152  A  New  English  Grammar. 

EXERCISE  82. 

In  the  following  sentences,  state  whether  the  verbs  are 
active  or  passive: 

1.  If  she  hate  me,  then  believe, 
She  shall  die  ere  I  will  grieve. 

2.  Where  shall  we  dine  to-day? 

3.  He  that  complies  against  his  will    •' 
Is  of  the  same  opinion  still. 

4.  Frequently  the  exordium  is  too  long,  and  the  peroration  in- 
terminable. 

5.  The  mother  loves  her  child. 

6.  The  speaker  corrected  himself. 

7.  I  held  it  truth,  with  him  who  sings 

To  one  clear  harpin  divers  tones. 
That  men  may  rise  on  stepping-stones, 
Of  their  dead  selves  to  higher  things. 

8.  The  train  was  wrecked  at  midnight. 

9.  The  slave  was  devoted  to  his  master. 

10.  The  truth,  conned  from  the  book  by  many  readers,  was  car- 
ried away  in  their  hearts. 

EXERCISE  83. 

Person  and  Number. 

Notice  the  person  and  number  of  each  subject  in  the 
following  sentences.  Note  the  change  in  the  verb  to  accom- 
modate the  change  in  the  subject : 

1.  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth. 

2.  He  knows  where  the  wild  flowers  grow. 

3.  They  know  how  the  wild  flowers  grow. 

4.  The  scissors  are  dull. 

3.    Evil  news  rides  post,  while  good  news  baits. 
6.     The  tongs  are  hot. 


Person  and  Number.  153 

7.  The  sheep  was  fast  in  the  fence. 

8.  The  sheep  were  driven  to  the  pond  and  washed. 

9.  The  school  was  dismissed  for  the  holidays. 

10.  The  school  were  not  all  present. 

11.  Henry,  William,  and  Charles  were  kings. 

12.  The  boy  or  his  father  is  at  fault. 

13.  Each  man,  woman,  and  child  was  given  a  prize. 

14.  Every  boy  and  every  girl  is  expected  to  be  ol)edient. 

15.  The  officers  and  not  the  private  weve  at  fault. 
1().  The  children,  or  the  servant,  or  I  am  to  blame. 

17.  Red,  white,  and  blue  makes  a  pretty  flag. 

18.  Grace  and  beauty  is  a  desirable  combination. 

19.  "  Paint  me  as  I  am,"  said  Cromwell. 

20.  "  You  are  excused,"  said  the  teacher,  in  a  pleasant  voice. 

21.  He  is  the  freeman,  whom  the  truth  makes  free. 

22.  Thou  art  a  pretty  fellow ! 

23.  The  storm  was  dreadful  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 

24.  The  islands  were  beautiful  as  we  sailed  in  and  out  among 
them. 

25.  'Tis  as  easy  as  lying. 

26.  He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 
All  things,  both  great  and  small. 

27.  Thou  standst  on  the  threshold  of  life. 

28.  Thou  waitest  for  the  coming  of  thy  mate. 

29.  Thou  pretty  child,  why  weepest  thou? 

30.  I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man  ; 
Who  dares  do  more  is  none. 

What  is  meant  by  person  and  number  in  the  verb?     In 
what  sense  may  it  be  said  to  be  a  property  of  the  verb? 


154  A  New  English  Grammar. 

What  changes  in  form  does  the  verb  undergo  to  denote  per- 
son and  number?  By  observing  the  preceding,  sentences, 
state  the  different  kinds  of  subjects  and  how  the  verb  accom- 
modates itself  in  form,  to  the  form  of  the  subject. 

The  person  and  number  of  the  verb  are  changes  which  its  form 
nndergoes  to  mark  its  agreement  with  its  subject. 

This  change  in  fprm  on  the  part  of  the  verb  does  not  indicate  a 
change  in  meaning,  so  that  person  and  number  can  scarcely  be  said 
to  be  a  property  of  the  verb.  The  subject  is  said  to  govern  the  verb 
which  means  simply  that  the  verb  accommodates  itself  in  form  to 
the  form  of  the  subject. 

In  making  the  changes  in  the  verb  to  indicate  person,  we  add  t, 
st,  est,  s,  es,  th,  eth,  to  the  present  indicative.  Number  is  indicated 
by  a  change  in  the  word,  as,  am,  are ;  luas,  were ;  or  by  s  as  an  end- 
ing for  the  singular,  and  leaving  it  off  for  the  plural,  as,  knoios, 
know. 

Note.— Let  the  children  work  out  the  exceptions  to  the  above  statement. 

By  a  careful  study  of  the  sentences,  the  following  facts  may  be 
seen: 

1.  A  singular  subject  requires  a  singular  verb. 

2.  A  plural  subject  requires  a  plural  verb. 

/  3.  If  a  subject  is  plural  in  form  and  singular  in  meaning,  usage 
determines  the  form  of  the  verb ;  sometimes  it  is  singular  and  some- 
times it  is  plural. 

4.  Some  subjects  are  plural  in  form  but  either  plural  or  singular 
in  meaning;  the  verb  is  plural. 

5.  Some  subjects  are  singular  in  form  but  either  singular  or 
plural  in  meaning;  the  verb  is  singular  or  plural  according  to  the 
meaning  of  the  subject. 

6.  A  subject  which  is  a  collective  noun  takes  a  singular  verb  if 
the  collection  is  considered  as  a  whole;  it  takes  a  plural  verb  if 
the  mind  dwells  upon  the  individuals  of  the  collection. 


Person  and  Number.  155 

7.    The  compound  subject  or  abridged  compound  sentence: 

a.  Parts  each  singular  and  taken  collectively,  i.  e.,  con- 

nected by  and  or  some  copulative  conjunction,  the 
verb  must  be  plural. 

b.  Parts  singular  and  taken  separately,  i.  e.,  connected 

by  or  or  nor,  or  if  preceded  by  each,  every,  or  nOj 
though  connected  by  and,  the  verb  must  be  singular. 

c.  If  the  parts  of  the  subject  are  emphatically  distin- 

guished, the  principal  subject  determines  the  form 
of  the  verb. 

d.  If  the  parts  differ  in  person  and  number  and  are  taken 

separately,  the  one  nearest  the  verb  determines  its 
form. 

e.  A  subject  compound  in  form  but  singular  in  meaning 

takes  a  singular  verb. 

EXERCISE  84. 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  suitable  words : 

1.  Either  of  you able  to  do  it. 

2.  Each  of  the  pupils studied  the  lesson. 

3.  Neither  of  the  prisoners g"ilty  of  the  charge. 

4.  No  one  of  the  animals dangerous. 

5.  Neither  of  them  -  ten  years  old. 

6.  No  one  of  the  men escaped. 

7.  Every  man,  woman,  and  child lost. 

8.  Neither  of  the  boats injured. 

9.  The  ashes light. 

10.  Oats a  good  price. 

11.  The  molasses fine. 

12.  The  news bad. 

13.  Politics his  delight. 

14.  The  deer pursued  by  the  hunter. 

15.  Truth  and  Mercy met  in  the  way. 


/ 


156  A  New  English  Grammar. 

16.  Righteousness  and  Peace kissed  each  other. 

17.  The  lion  and  the  lamb lain  down  together. 

18.  Elegance  and  ease a  combinatiou  which  pleases. 

EXERCISE  85. 
Conjugation  of  the  Verb. 

Give  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word,  conjugation.  What 
is  meant  by  the  conjugation  of  the  v6rb?  Illustrate  with 
any  verb. 

Give  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word,  synopsis.  What  is 
meant  by  the  synopsis  of  the  verb?     Illustrate  with  any  verb. 

The  word,  conjugation,  comes  from  the  Latin,  con,  meaning  with, 
together;  jugare,  meaning,  to  join,  and  the  suffix,  ion,  meaning,  the 
act  of.    Literally  the  word  means,  the  act  of  joining  together. 

The  conjugation  of  the  verb  is  the  giving  of  all  its  inflected  forms 
which  either  express  shades  of  its  own  meaning  or  adapt  it  to  be 
used  along  with  the  different  forms  of  other  words.  When  all  the 
forms  for  the  different  modes,  tenses,  voices,  persons,  and  numbers 
of  a  verb  have  been  given,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  conjugated. 

By  the  synopsis  of  a  verb  is  meant  the  giving  of  these  forms  of 
the  verb  in  a  single  person  and  number. 

Note.— No  advantage  is  to  be  gained  by  having  children  commit  the  conjuga- 
tions or  synopses  of  certain  verbs.  They  shdold  know  all  these  forms,  however. 
The  teacher  might  say  to  a  pupil,  "  Make  a  sentence  about  Harry."  Suppose  the 
pupil  says,  "  Harry  sits  at  his  desk."  The  teacher  might  then  say,  "  Express  that 
in  the  future  tense."  "Express  it  in  the  subjunctive  mode,  etc."  Or  a  sentence 
may  be  taken  from  the  book,  and,  after  the  children  have  given  the  mode,  tense, 
voice,  person,  etc.,  of  the  verb,  the  teacher  may  ask  them  to  change  it  to  difTerent 
modes,  tenses,  numbers,  etc.  By  using  many  devices  of  this  kind,  the  teacher  can 
fix  in  the  mind  of  the  child  all  the  forms  of  the  verb  in  connection  with  their 
meanings,  and  not  as  so  many  dry,  arbitrary  forms  to  be  committed  to  memory. 
(See  Appendix  A. ) 

EXERCISE  86. 

Forms  of  Verb. 

Observe  the  form  of  the  verb  in  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences.    State  how  the  forms  differ.      What  difference  in 


FoKMS  OF  Verb.  157 

meaning  does  this  difference  in  form  indicate  ?     Name,  define, 
and  illustrate  the  different  forms  which  the  verb  may  have: 

1.  I  study  my  lessons  carefully  before  coming  to  recitation. 

2.  Men  rise  above  their  animal  natures  and  become  divine. 

3.  I  was  studying  when  you  called. 

4.  The  sun  was  rising  as  we  started. 

5.  The  boy  does  study  diligently. 

6.  I  do  rise  betimes. 

7.  Do  you  study  astronomy? 

8.  Do  men  rise  in  the  world  by  mere  chance? 

9.  I  do  not  study  when  I  should  be  sleeping. 

10.  Men  do  not  rise  in  the  world,  because  they  do  not  put  forth 
an  effort  to  do  so. 

11.  A  bad  man  can  have  no  possessions  that  are  fire  proof.     ■ 

12.  No  man  is  right  on  any  question  unless  the  side  he  takes  is 
God's  side. 

13.  The  man  gains  nothing  who  loses  his  character  and  saves  his 
money. 

14.  For  every  fault  we  see  in  others,  we  have  two  of  our  own 
which  we  overlook. 

15.  He  who  thinks  loosely  will  write  loosely. 

The  simple  form  of  the  verb  is  that  form  which  we  call  the 
root ;     e.  g.,  write,  look. 

The  progressive  form  of  the  verb  is  that  form  which  expresses 
its  attribute  in  a  state  of  continuance;  e.  g.,    writing,  looking. 

The  emphatic  form  of  the  verb  is  that  form  which  emphasizes 
the  attribute  expressed  by  it ;  e.  g.,    do  vjrite,  do  look. 

The  interrogative  form  of  the  verb  is  that  form  which  is  used 
in  asking  a  question ;  e.  g.,    Do  you  study  f    Do  we  write  ? 

The  negative  form  of  the  verb  is  that  form  which  is  used  when 
the  relation  between  thought  subject  and  thought  predicate  is  one 
of  disagreement;  e.  g.,     I  do  not  write.    She  does  not  look. 

Make  a  complete  outline  of  the  verb,  including  definition, 
classes,  properties,  etc. 


158  A  New  English  Grammar. 

EXERCISE  87. 

From  the  expressions  enclosed  in  the  marks  of  parenthesis 
in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  select  the  correct  one: 

1.    The  passenger  (allows,  admits,  declares)  that  the  time  for 
starting  has  come. 

•     2.  The  child  (did,  done)  it. 

3.  Tom  (dove,  dived)  to  the  bottom  several  times. 

4.  Silver  has  (flowed,  flown)  into  the  treasury. 

5.  Have  you  (hanged,  hung)  the  clothes  out? 

6.  The  prisoner  was  sentenced  to  be  (hung,  hanged). 

7.  I'll  (learn,  teach)  a  man  to  swim  for  five  dollars. 

8.  He  wouldn't  (let,  leave)  me  go. 

9.  I  can  (lend,  loan)  you  some  money. 

10.  He  (lit,  alighted)  from  his  horse  with  great  agility. 

11.  The  child  (plead,  pleaded)  sohardthatthe  teacher  let  him  off. 

12.  Trumbull  had  been  used  to  having  every  attention  (shown, 
showed)  him. 

13.  It  is  (talked,  said)  privately  that  the  bank  is  ruined. 

14.  The  plant  has  (took,  taken)  root  there. 

15.  I  could  have  (gone,  went). 

16.  In  the  afternoon,  I  (lied,  lay)  down. 

17.  He  (laid,  lay)  down  and  fell  into  a  heavy  sleep. 

18.  I  recalled  the  times  I  had  (laid,  lain)  awake. 

19.  Orlando  (lay,  laid)  Adam  down  carefully,  and  told  him  that 
lie  would  soon  return  with  food. 

20.  Scott  often  gives  us  the  picture  of  some  old  ruined  abbey, 
(lying,  laying)  cold  and  deserted  in  the  moonlight. 

21.  There  let  him  (lay,  lie). 

22.  If  you  had  a  strong  fire,  and  your  steam  (was,  were)  inclined 
to  (rise,  raise)  what  (would,  should)  you  do  ? 

23.  More  skilled  to  (rise,  raise)  the  wretched  than  to  (raise,  rise). 

24.  Orville  (seated,  sat)  her  in  the  big  chair. 


Forms  of  Verb.  169 

25.  She  (sat,  set)  before  the  fire. 

26.  Did  she  (sit,  set)  still  ? 

27.  You  (are  n't,  ain't)  so  tall  as  your  sister. 

28.  As  it  (don't,  does  n't)  suit  you,  never  mind. 

29.  He  (does  n't,  don't)  know  me. 

30.  You  (ought  not  to,  should  not,  had  n't  ought  to)  whisper  in 
the  class. 

31.  You  (were,  was)  in  Boston  then,  (was  n't,  were  n't)  you? 

32.  How  infinitely  good  you  (was,  were)  to  poor  Mrs.  Golds- 
worthy  ! 

33.  "  Sir,"  said  the  King,  "  was  it  not  when  you  (were,  was)  op- 
posing me?" 

34.  (Can,  may)  I  help  you  to  the  fruit? 

35.  If  an  author's  ideas  are  original,  he  (can,  may;  safely  fail  in 
all  other  requirements. 

36.  I  (shall,  will)  bring  him  over  to  the  manor,  if  I  (can,  may). 
I  don't  say,  if  I  (can,  may). 

37.  Here  we  encountered  an  opposition  which  (must,  had  to)  be 
overcome. 

3S.    They  met  a  friend  and  one  of   them  (had  to,  must)  return 
with  him  to  show  him  the  way. 

39.  Never  (shall,  will)  T  see  her  more— never  (will,  shall)  I  see 
her  more,  till  she  is  married. 

40.  We  (shall,  will)  do  our  best  to  make  you  happy  and  hope 
that  we  (will,  shall)  succeed. 

41.  We  (shall,  will)  bo  killed  together. 

42.  We  (shall,  will)  have  to  go. 

43.  1  leave  early,  and,  accordingly  (shall,  will)  be  there. 

44.  Is  the  time  coming  when  we  (will,  shall)  desert  Thackeray? 

45.  I  (will,  shall)  be  happy  to  see  you  there. 

46.  If  we  proceed  on  this  principle,  we  (will,  shall)  lose  every- 
thing. 

47.  "Not  pay  it! "  says  he,  "  but  you  (will,  shall)  pay  it!  ay,  ay, 
you  (will,  shall)  pay  it!" 


160  A  New  English  Grammar. 

48.  You  (shall,  will)  be  elected,  whoever  may  be  your  opponent. 

49.  Thou  (shalt,  wilt)  not  steal. 

50.  Sicinius.     It  is  a  mind 

That  (shalt,  will)  remain  a  poison  where  it  is, 
Not  poison  any  further. 

Coriolanus.    Shall  remain! — 

Hear  you  thisTi-itou  of  the  minnows?    Mark  you 

His  absolute  ("shall,"  "will")? 

51.  I  am  afraid  that  I  (shall,  will)  not  be  there,  and  that  you  and 
he  (shall,  will)  obtain  the  place. 

52.  He  thinks  that  he  (will,  shall)  come  out  with  a  profit. 

53.  If  I  (rise,  raise)  early  enough,  I  (shall,  will)  see  the  sun 
(raise,  rise). 

54.  He  is  afraid  that  he  (will,  shall)  not  pass  his  examination. 

55.  While  he  is  wondering  how  long  he  (shall,  will)  live  in  this 
condition,  a  boat  appears. 

56.  Surely  goodness  and  mercy  (will,  shall)  follow  me  all  the 
days  of  my  life,  and  I  (will,  shall)  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord 
forever. 

57.  The  time  is  coming  when  the  English  language  (shall,  will) 
be  the  language  of  the  globe. 

58.  (Will,  shall)  you  bear  the  message?    Or  (shall,  will)  I? 

59.  (Shall,  will)  I  speak  to  him?    Or  (shall,  will)  you? 

60.  (Shall,  will)  you  be  there? 

61.  Where  (shall,  wdll)  I  see  the  man? 

62.  How  long  (shall,  will)  we  need  to  stay  ? 

63.  When  our  friends  (would,  should)  \yalk  out,  they  (would, 
should)  always  go  down  by  the  lake. 

64.  The  train  (should,  would)  make  better  time  than  it  does. 

65.  If  it  (should,  would)  be  very  cold,  he  (would,  should)  not 
start. 

66.  I  knew  that  we  (should,  would)  either  go  to  the  bottom  to- 
gether or  that  she  (would,  should^  be  the  making  of  me. 


Forms  of  Verb.  161 

67.  If  I  had  gone  on  the  excursion,  I  (should,  would)  have 
needed  money. 

68.  I  (should,  would)  be  pleased  to  meet  your  friend. 

69.  Taking  this  for  granted,  we  (would,  should)  expect  to  find 
gold  in  every  hill. 

70.  I  (should,  would)  think  that  we  (should,  would)  likely  find 
the  man  at  his  home. 

71.  Thackeray  says  that  he  (should,  would)  have  been  proud  (to 
be,  to  have  been)  Shakespeare's  boot-black  or  Addison's  errand-boy. 

72.  We  thought  that  in  taking  this  course  we  (would,  should) 
escape  criticism. 

73.  We  hoped  that  she  (should,  would)  soon  visit  us  again. 

74.  As  a  friend,  I  (would,  should)  like  to  warn  you. 

75.  I  (would,  should)  be  willing  to  go,  if  it  were  not  for  my 
friends. 

76.  If  we  (were,  was)  consulted,  we  (should,  would)  not  want  a 
change. 

J8.    He  had  always  thought  he  (would,  should)  like  to  go  west. 

79.  He  (bid,  bade)  them  farewell. 

80.  The  commander  (bid,  bade)  the  soldiers  fire. 

81.  The  man  (bade,  bid)  one  dollar  for  the  book. 

82.  The  water  has  not  been  (drank,  drunk). 

83.  The  weary  traveler  (drank,  drunk)  eagerly. 

84.  He  (ate,  eat)  a  hearty  meal. 

85.  Before  I  had  (got,  gotten)  my  breath,  men  (came,  come)  run- 
ning after  me. 

86.  The  lamp  was  (lit,  lighted)  early. 

87.  The  statement  has  been  (proven,  proved). 

88.  I  have  (rode,  ridden)  only  a  short  (way,  ways). 

89.  I  have  (awaked,  awoke)  in  time. 

90.  Mr.  Conklin  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  (prevents, 
will  prevent)  him  from  accepting  Mrs.  Waller's  invitation  to  dinner 
Tuesday. 

11 


162  A  New  English  Grammar. 

91.  Mr.  Curtis  (accepts  with  pleasure,  will  be  happy  to  accept) 
Mrs.  Long's  kind  invitation  for  Saturday  evening. 

92.  It  (is,  was)  the  duty  of  history  to  record  inventions  as  well 
as  wars. 

93.  It  has  always  been  a  question  with  me  whether  scientific 
tastes  (denote,  denoted)  a  higher  type  of  mind  than  aesthetic  tastes. 

94.  It  was  (the  business  of  Harvard,  Harvard's  business)  (to  be, 
to  have  been)  on.  the  lookout,  and  (to  secure,  to  have  secured)  all 
the  glory  it  could. 

95.  Every  bill  shall  be  presented  to  the  governor  ;  if  he  (approve, 
approves),  he  (shall,  will)  sign  it. 

96.  Whether  the  encounter  (alienate,  alienates)  friends  or  (raise, 
raises)  up  enemies,  whether  it  (be  fraught,  is  fraught)  with  physical 
risk  or  moral  danger,  whether  it  (lead,  leads)  to  defeat  or  to  total 
ruin,  the  editor  who  is  worthy  of  the  name  will  not  shrink  from  the 
contest. 

97.  How  terrible  it  would  be  if  you  (were,  was)  a  saint! 

98.  If  your  home  (were,  was)  not  in  Italy,  you  would  feel  as  I  do. 

99.  My  wife  is  apt  to  look  as  if  she  {was,  were)  going  to  cry. 

100.  If  I  (was,  were)  you,  I  (should,  would)  let  it  pass. 

101.  The  frigate  now  came  tearing  along  as  if  she  (were,  was) 
alive  and  (were,  was)  feeling  the  fever  of  the  chase. 

102.  If  it  (is,  be)  discouraging  to  notice  (your  own,  one's  own) 
faults  in  the  second  generation,  it  is  still  more  so  to  encounter  idi- 
osyncracies  with  which  you  have  no  association. 

103.  Three  centuries  of  New  England  climate  (has,  have)  made 
him  quick-witted. 

104.  The  persecutions  of  the  chapel  bell,  sounding  its  unwel- 
come summons  to  six  o'clock  prayers,  (interrupt,  interrupts)  my 
slumbers  no  more. 

105.  The  gayety  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the  soul  (recall,  recalls) 
the  last  loiterer  in  the  supper -room. 

106.  With  two  of  his  companions,  he  entered  and  (was,  were) 
conducted  through  the  place. 


Forms  of  Verb.  163 

107.  The  mother,  with   two   young  children,  (has,  have)  gone 
abroad. 

108.  The  rehgion  of  this  period,  as  well  as  that  of  the  early- 
Christians,  (was,  were)  entirely  opposed  to  any  such  belief. 

109.  The  Rev.  Goldust,  accompanied  by   his  family,  (has,  have) 
left  the  city. 

110.  The  whole  system  of  mind-reading,  mesmerism,  and  spir- 
itualism (seem,  seetns)  to  be  connected. 

111.  The  formation  of  paragraphs  (are,  is)  very  important. 

112.  All  that  they  could  see  of  the  mysterious  person  (was,  were) 
his  boots. 

113.  What  (are,  is)  wanted  (is,  are)  not  more  teachers,  but  better 
trained  teachers. 

114.  Since  this  matter  has  been  discussed,  there  (have,  has)  been 
many  inquiries. 

115.  In  the  evening,  there  (was,  were)  always  some  social  games. 

116.  In  literature  (is,  are)  embalmed  the  short  stories  of  the 
day. 

117.  No  one  of  these  forty   English  words  (were,  was)  in  use 
before  the  battle  of  Hastings. 

118.  While  either  of  these  (is,  are)  hungry,  nothing  will  ever 
give  (them,  him)  sleep. 

119.  Neither  of  the  girls  (was,  were)  very  much  at  (their,  her) 
ease. 

120.  Neither  the  Bishop   nor   a  recent   writer  in  the  Spectator 
(has,  have)  arrived  at  the  truth. 

121.  She  is  one  of  the  writers  who  (is,  are)  destined  to  be  iiu- 
niortal. 

122.  We  lament  the  excessive  delicacy  of  his  ideas,  which  (.pre- 
vents, prevent)  one  from  grasping  them. 

12.3.  The  number  of  exercises  (is,  are)  not  great. 

124.  The  majority  of  Indian  marriages  (is,  arc)  happy. 

12.5.  A  multitude  of  heads,  hats,  fans,  (were,  was)  waving. 

126.  One  hundred  dollars  (has,  have)  been  added. 


164  A  New  English  Grammar. 

127.  The  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Columbus  (request,  requests) 
your  presence  at  its  First  Annual  Dinner. 

128.  The  committee  (has  called,  have  called)  for  more  witnesses. 

129.  Thackeray  gives  Swift  a  much  better  character  (than  John- 
son, than  Johnson  does). 

130.  The  government  (has  not  and  will  not  enter,  has  not  en- 
tered and  will  not  enter)  into  negotiations. 

131.  He  (liked,  loved)  to  wander  through  the  woods. 

132.  The  bill  was  (championed,  supported)  by  senator  Logan. 

133.  I  did  not  (calculate,  intend)  to  insult  any  one  by  the  re- 
marks. 

134.  They  (carried,  fetched,  brought)  water  from  a  spring  nearby. 

135.  Mrs.  Masters  (claims,  declares)  that  she  is  satisfied. 

136.  The  senator  (claims,  wants)  the  floor. 

137.  We  (admit,  confess)  the  truth  of  that  statement. 

138.  My  friend  failed  to  (materialize,  appear). 

139.  The  man  (was  shocked  by  electricity,  received  an  electric 
shock).  ^^  ^ 

140.  This  (shows  the  measure  of,  sizes  up)  the  man. 

141.  He  (states,  says)  that  he  was  hungry. 

142.  I  am  (stopping,  staying,  living)  at  the  hotel. 

143.  The  rumors  of  what  (had  taken  place,  occurred,  transpired) 
were  spread  abroad. 

144.  I  gladly  (except,  accept)  your  oflTer. 

145.  'He  grants  all  (accept,  except)  the  last  point. 

146.  She  (expects,  suspects)  her  brother  to-morrow. 

147.  I  (expect,  suspect,  think)  you  will  find  bad  roads. 

148.  He  completely  (vanquished,  downed)  his  opponent. 

149.  A  beautiful  doll  came  out  and  (gestured,  gesticulated)  sol- 
emnly. 

150.  The  two  men  (were  never  neighborly,  never  neighbored), 
much  to  the  regret  of  the  Quaker. 

151.  Why  do  you  (resurrect,  revive)  that  old  question  ? 


The  Adverb.  165 

152.  She  (went  to  work  as  a  clerk,  began  clerking)  in  a  store. 

153.  People  (are  not  very  enthusiastic,  don't  enthuse)  on  the 
subject. 

154.  He  (summoned,  summonsed)  me  to  his  office. 

155.  Mr.  Jackson   was  asked  (to  act  as  umpire,  to  umpire  the 
game). 

156.  A  vote  of  thanks  was  extended  to  Mr.  Temple  for  (referee- 
ing  the  game,  acting  as  referee  of  the  game). 

157.  This  ruling  does  not  (efiect,  affect)  the  case  of  the  prisoner 
at  the  bar. 

158.  They  sailed  away  without  (affecting,  effecting)  their  pur- 
pose. 

159.  The    attribute    expressed    by    a    transitive    verb   directly 
(effects,  affects)  an  object. 

160.  Has  it  (cultured,  cultivated)  the  popular  sensibilities? 


EXERCISE  88. 

The  Adverb. 

State  the  use  of  each  italicized  word  in  the  following : 

1.  The  mountaia  streams  flow  rapidly. 

2.  The  sentence  is  undoubtedly  a  just  one. 
."!.     The  girl  is  exceedingly  lonesome. 

4.  The  vessel  was  wrecked  when  it  was  almost  over  the  ocean. 

5.  We  shall  all  meet  there. 

().    The  method  is  slow  at  first  but  will  rapidly  grow  easier. 

7.  Occasionally  written  exercises  should  be  substituted  for  the 
oral,  when  the  teacher  wishes  to  test  the  progress  of  the  class. 

8.  I  shall  be  glad  to  see  you  whenever  you  may  stop. 

9.  I  saw  the  place  where  the  World's  Fair  buildings  are  to  stand. 
10.    The  young  man  was  greatly  respected  in  the  town  where  he 

was  born. 


166  A  New  English  Grammar. 

11.  No  spot  on  earth,  do  I  love  more  sincerely, 
Than  old  Virginia,  the  place  where  I  was  born. 

12.  He  speaks  mosi  sincerely  when  in  private  conversation. 
1  ;5.    I  sincerely  hope  for  your  success. 

14.  The  prisoner  begged  hard  for  mercy. 

15.  The  boy  studies  harder  than  his  sister. 

16.  It  rained  hardest  just  after  we  started. 

17.  Now  will  we  deal  worse  with  thee  than  with  them. 

18.  He  is  much  taller  than  I. 

19.  He  is  more  polite  than  his  brother. 

20.  He  is  the  most  industrious  boy  in  school. 

21.  The  soul  lives  on  forever. 

22.  We  shall  no  doubt  meet  often  hereafter. 
28.  I  cannot  believe  otherunse. 

24.  The  lady  was  greatly  distressed  by  the  news. 

25.  When  shall  we  three  meet  again? 

26.  Where  do  the  people  congregate  ? 

27.  I  know  why  you  have  come. 

28.  I  see  how  you  made  the  mistake. 

29.  I  can  tell  why  the  sun  appears  to  rise  and  set. 

30.  There  is  the  same  reason  for  the  study  of  language  that  there 
is  for  the  study  of  thought.  The  careful  study  of  language  cannot 
fail  to  make  the  student  acquainted  with  the  laws  of  the  human 
mind. 

EXERCISE  89. 

Define  adverb.  State  the  different  classes  which  you  have 
discovered  in  the  preceding  sentences.  Define  and  illustrate 
in  each  case.  State  the  basis  of  classification.  '  State  all  the 
adverbial  ideas  which  may  be  expressed  by  the  adverb  and 
give  one  example  of  each.      ^Discuss  comparison  in  connec- 

1.  See  pp.  Gl-63. 

2.  See  pp.  123-124. 


The  Advekb.  167 

£ion  with  the  adverb.  Compare  the  adverb  with  the  adjective 
with  regard  to  comparison.  State  all  the  uses  of  the  adverb 
and  illustrate  each.  Name  the  modifiers  which  may  belong 
to  the  adverb  and  give  an  example  of  each.  Make  out  a  list 
of  errors  most  frequently  made  in  the  use  of  the  adverb. 

An  adverb  is  an  attributive  word  which  expresses  an  attribute  of 
an  attribute  or  of  a  relation. 

On  basis  of  the  part  of  the  sentence  modified,  we  have  modal 
adverbs  and  regular  adverbs.  A  modal  adverb  is  an  adverb 
which  expresses  an  attribute  of  a  relation;  e.  g.,  The  iact  is  certainly 
significant. 

A  reg"ular  adverb  is  an  adverb  which  expresses  an  attribute 
of  an  attribute;  e.  g.,  The  stream  flows  rapidly. 

On  basis  of  form  or  origin,  we  have  simple,  derivative,  and 
coiupouiid  adverbs. 

On  basis  of  use  in  the  sentence,  we  have  conjunctive,  inter- 
rogative, and  pure  adverbs. 

By  studying  the  above  sentences  carefully,  the  student  will  see 

that  the  adverb  may  modify  a  pure  verb,  an  attributive  verb,  an 

adjective,  an  adverb,  or  a  preposition ;  and  that  it  may  have  an 

adverbial  or  an  adverbial  objective  modifier. 

Note. — For  other  definitions,  a  discussion  of  comparison,  the  adverbial  ideas 
expressed  by  the  adverb,  etc.,  see  the  subject  of  modifiers,  complex  sentence,  the 
adjective,  and  other  parts  of  this  booli. 

EXERCISE  90. 
From  the  expressions  enclosed  in  the  marks  of  parenthe- 
sis in  the  following  sentences,  select  the  correct  one: 

1.  He  will  (probably,  likely)  be  here  this  evening. 

2.  That  poem  I  like  (better  than,  most  of)  any  otlier  single 
piece. 

3.  He  was  (nowhere,  not  nearly  so)  prolific  a  writer  as  Words- 
worth. 

4.  The  outside  of  the  earth,  after  it  had  cooled  (some,  some- 
what) was  hard  and  solid. 


168  A  New  English  Grammar. 

5.  There  is,  (first,  firstly)  the  distinction  mentioned  before. 

6.  The  child  was  treated  (ill,  illy). 

7.  The  statement  amused  the  court  (much,  muchly). 
-s.  He  reasoned  (thus,  thusly). 

9.     Pope  didn't  translate  the  Iliad  (accurate,  accurately). 

10.  These  poor  people  were  not  so  (bad,  badly)  off. 

11.  Swift  treated  his  child  as  (mean,  meanly)  as  a  child  could  be 
treated'. 

12.  Byron  could  be  (terrible,  terribly)  scathing. 

13.  Trilby  was  (uncommon,  uncommonly)  tall. 

14.  Even  his  friends  looked  (coldly,  cold)  upon  him. 

15.  The  coat  goes  on  (easy,  easily). 

16.  The  girl  danced  (graceful,  gracefully). 

17.  We  learned  to  appreciate  a  (real,  really)  clear  day. 

18.  (Relatively  to  her  population,  England  has— England  has, 
relative  to  her  population)  nearly  four  times  as  many  railway  pas- 
sengers as  the  United  States. 

19.  The  girl  was  (too  much  surprised,  too  sjUjrprised)  to  answer. 

20.  The  statement  is  not  (likely,  liable)  to  convince  any  one. 

21.  (As  soon  as,  directly)  I  came,  the  child  knew  me. 

22.  (As  soon  as  she  had  said,  immediately  she  said)  this,  she  was 
sorry  for  it.  <■ 

23.  (After,  once)  the  apology  was  made,  he  felt  better. 

24.  He  is  not  (as,  so)  old  as  you. 

25.  The  house  is  not  (so,  as)  dark  as  we  thought  it  to  be. 

26.  The  boy  was  (rather,  quite)  tall  for  his  age. 

27.  We  had  (quite  a,  a  protracted)  discussion  in  the  meeting. 

28.  I  remained  until  I  heard  (quite  a  numljer  of,  several) 
speeches. 

29.  Their  misery  impressed  the  minister  (strongly,  quite  a  great 

deal). 

30.  He  dwelt  on  the  point  for  (some  time,  quite  a  time). 

31.  The  teacher's  opinion  was  (much,  very)  respected. 


The  Adverb.  169 

32.  I  cannot  walk  (further,  farther). 

33.  He  wrote  articles  (which  were  even  envied,  which  were  en- 
vTed  even)  by  his  teachers. 

34.  Lane  told  them  (not  to  shoot,  to  not  shoot). 

35.  You've  no  idea  what  a  bother  it  is  (to  be  always,  to  always 
be)  neat  and  in  order. 

36.  He  moved  (that  the  subject  be  indefinitely  postponed,  to  in- 
definitely postpone  the  subject). 

37.  The  birds  sing  (beautiful,  beautifully). 

38.  He  spoke  (clear  and  distinct,  clearly  and  distinctly). 

39.  The  moon  shines  (bright,  brightly). 

40.  The  old  man  looks  (sad,  sadly). 

Make  an  outline  of  the  adverb  similar  to  that  made  for 
other  parts  of  speech. 

EXERCISE  91. 

The  Infinitive. 

Explain  the  use  of  the  following  italicized  expressions: 

1.  To  be  good  is  to  he  great. 

2.  To  forgive  is  to  he  charitable. 

3.  The  noblest  revenge  is  to  forgive. 

4.  My  friend  is  about  to  depart. 

5.  All  desire  to  live  long  but  no  one  would  be  old. 

6.  It  is  easy  to  y?n(Z  fault. 

7.  The  lion,  to  speak  figuratively,  is  the  king  of  beasts. 

8.  My  child  is  anxious  to  go  to  school.c^--^ 

9.  My  friend  failed  to  appear. 

10.  We  believe  in  the  life  to  come. 

11.  Time  to  come  is  called  future  time. 

12.  The  children  are  to  sing. 

13.  We  are  to  have  a  jolly  time. 

14.  We  eat  to  live  and  do  not  live  to  eat. 


170  A  New  English  Grammar. 

15.  I  know  him  to  he  a  man. 

16.  They  made  Victoria  queen. 

17.  The  boy  grew  to  he  useful. 

1 8.  To  learn  a  lesson  accurately  is  diflBcult. 

19.  I  love  to  read  good  books. 

20.  He  loves  to_send  presents  to  his  friends. 

21.  To  coast,  sliding,  is  fine  sport. 

22.  To  die,  sleeping  always,  is  not  much  to  be  dreaded. 

23.  Man  never  is,  but  always  to  he,  blest. 
2-1.  To  err  is  human. 

25.  To  obey  is  to  enjoy. 

26.  He  loves  to  play. 

27.  He  is  trying  to  learn. 

28.  To  spend  money  recklessly  is  criminal. 

29.  To  report  a  speech  correctly  is  difticult. 

30.  I  study  to  learn. 

31.  They  bade  him  depart. 

32.  I  saw  him  fall. 

33.  I  hoped  to  see  you. 

34.  I  intended  to  call  for  you. 

35.  He  expected  to  see  you  yesterday. 

56.     To  do  justice  and  judgment  is  more  acceptable   to  the  Lord 
than  sacrifice. 

37.  It  is  our  duty  to  try  and  our  determination  to  succeed. 

38.  They  had  dared  to  think  for  themselves. 

39.  Flee  from  the  wrath  to  come. 

40.  I  heard  him  declaim.  » 

41.  He  went  to  seg  the  World's  Fair. 

42.  The  gods  are  hard  to  reconcile. 

43.  The  rain  threatening  to  fall,  we  left  early. 

44.  He  told  me  w'hen  to  come. 

45.  They  tried  to  cheat,  rob,  and  murder  him. 


The  Infinitive.  '  171 

46.  I  come  not  here  to  talk. 

47.  In  sooth,  deceit  niaketh  no  mortal  gay. 

48.  It  is  better  to  fight  for  the  good  than  to  rail  at  the  ill. 

49.  Let  the  great  world  spin  forever  down  the  ringing  grooves  of 
change. 

50.  I  saw  along  the  winter  snow  a  spectral  column  pour. 

EXERCISE  92. 

Define  infinitive.  State  all  the  uses  and  modifiers  which 
the  infinitive  may  have. 

The  infinitive  may  be  defined  on  two  bases;  viz.,  on  basis  of  its 
origin,  or  on  basis  of  its  use. 

On  basis  of  its  origin  the  infinitive  is  the  root  form  of  the 
verb  without  the  asserting  element.  This  definition  would  exclude 
the  form  in  "  ing,"  sometimes  included  in  the  infinitive. 

On  basis  of  its  use,  the  infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun,  express- 
ing in  noun  form  the  attribute  which  the  verb  asserts.  This  defini- 
tion would  include  the  form  in  "  ing." 

Taking  the  first  definition,  the  pupil  may  be  led  to  see  that  the 
infinitive  has  the  following  uses: 

1.  Substantive; 

a.  Subject  of  the  sentence. 

b.  Predicate  of  the  sentence. 

c.  Principal  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase. 

d.  Direct  objective  modifier. 

e.  Appositive  modifier. 
/.  Independently. 

g.     Indirect  objective  modifier. 
h.    Adverbial  objective  modifier. 

(See  Whitney's  Essentials  of  English  Grammar,  par.  448). 

2.  Attributive;  v 

a.  Adjective.  '  \ 

b.  Adverb,  N 

3.  Relational ; 

a.    As  relational  element  in  a  clausal  phrase.    A  clausal  phrase 
is  a  group  of  words  which  has  a  subject-like  element,  a  predicate- 


172  A  New  English  Grammar. 

like  element,  and  a  copula-like  element,  but  it  makes  no  assertion ; 
t'.  g.,  I  know  him  to  be  honest.  It  has  the  form  of  a  clause  but  the 
value  of  a  phrase.  In  the  above  illustration,  the  infinitive  to  be,  is 
the  relational  or  copula-like  element. 

b.  The  infinitive  has  something  of  the  same  use  when  there  is 
a  double  predicate  in  the  sentence ;  e.  g.,  The  boy  grew  to  be  useful. 
It  seems  that  to  be  is  here  the  copula-like  element  for  the  second 
part  of  the  double  predicate. 

The  infinitive  may  have  the  following  modifiers:  adverbial,  direct 
objective,  indirect  objective,  adverbial  objective,  and  appositive. 

Make  an  outline  of  the  infinitive,  summing  up  all  the 
points  you  have  learned. 

EXERCISE  93. 

The  Participle. 

State  the  use  of  the  italicized  expressions  in  the  following: 

1.  Walking  rapidly  develops  the  muscles. 

2.  Boxing  is  not  fighting. 

3.  I  heard  the  rushing  of  the  storm. 

4.  He  is  anxious  for  learning. 

5.  We  learn  to  do  by  doing. 

6.  That  sport,  racing,  is  dangerous. 

7.  His  conduct,  generally  speaking,  was  honorable. 

8.  His  master  beirig  away,  the  work  was  neglected, 
t).  The  howling  storm  swept  by  us. 

10.  The  plants  are  growing  nicely. 

11.  I  saw  him  coming  to  town. 

12.  The  child  grew  interested  in  the  story, 
i;-).  The  rain  came  dashing^ down. 

14.  The  horse  came  trotting  down  the  road. 

15.  Your  mother  being  sick,  I  came. 


The  Participle.  173 

16.  I  thought  about  his  being  tired. 

17.  I  came,  being  sick. 

18.  He  stood,  being  hedtating  in  his  manner. 

19.  Spelling,  naming  the  letters  of  the  word,  is  diflBcult. 

20.  We  did  not  like  Ms  singing. 

21.  The  boy  is  bringing  the  carriage. 

22.  Speaking  to  the  boy,  he  said,  "Go  quickly." 

23.  Good  singing  is  very  attractive. 

24.  Thinking  rapidly  requires  presence  of  mind. 

25.  The  regiment,  moving  the  battery  to  the  hill,  renews  the  en- 
gagement. 

26.  The  class  will  soon  be  reading. 

27.  The  soldier,  deceived  by  the  enemy,  was  slain. 

28.  The  carriage  being  broken,  we  could  not  go  farther. 

29.  Having  lost  our  guide,  we  were  unable  to  reach  the  village. 

30.  The  money  having  been  stolen,  the  bank  closed  its  doors. 

31.  A  penny  given  willingly  is  of  greater  value  than  a  pound 
given  grudgingly. 

32.  The  spider,  spinning  his  web,  was  an  inspiration  to  Bruce. 

33.  The  messenger,  waving  the  packet  to  the  crowd,  appeared  in  the 
distance. 

34.  Christ,  walking  on  the  sea,  came  to  his  disciples. 

35.  John,  the  Baptist,  came  eating  and  drinking. 

Define  participle;  state  all  its  uses  in  the  sentence;  and 
all  the  modifiers  it  may  have.  Make  an  outline  of  the  in- 
finitive and  participle,  showing  definitions,  uses,  and  modi- 
fiers.    Compare  and  contrast  the  infinitive  and  participle. 

The  participle  is  the  derived  form  of  the  verb  without  the  as- 
serting element  and  may  be  used  substantively  or  attributively. 


174  A  New  English  Grammar. 

By  a  careful  study  of  the  preceding  sentences  the  pupils  may  see 
that  the  participle  has  the  following  uses; 

1.  Substantive. 

a.  Subject  of  the  sentence. 

b.  Predicate  of  the  sentence." 

c.  Direct  objective  modifier. '"^ 
</.,  Indirect  objective  modifier. " 

c.     Principal  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase.  ^ 
/.     Appositive  modifier. 
g.     Independently 

2.  Attributive. 

a.  Modifying  adjective. 

b.  Predicate  adjective. 

c.  Adjective-adverb. 

3.  Relational. 

a.  Relational-like  element  of  a  clausal  phrase. 

b.  Relational-like  element  with  second  part  of  double  predi- 
cate. 

The  participle  may  take  the  following  modifiers: 

a.  Appositive.  -' 

b.  Possessive. 

c.  Direct  objective. 

d.  .  Indirect  objective. 
€.     Adverbial  objective. 
/.     Adjective. 

g.    Adverbial.  > 

EXERCISE  94. 

Point  out  the  infinitives  and  participles  in  the  following 
sentences  and  give  the  use  of  each  : 

1.  Thoughts  shut  up,  want  air, 

And  spoil  like  bales  unopened  to  the  sun. 

2.  Let  us  be  content  in  work, 

To  do  the  thing  we  can,  and  not  presume 
To  fret  because  it's  little. 

3.  One  day  with  life  and  heart, 

Is  more  than  time  enough  to  find  a  world. 


The  Preposition.  175 

4.  Needful  auxiliars  are  our  friends,  to  give 
To  social  man  true  relish  of  himself. 

5.  Learn  well  to  know  how  much  need  not  be  known, 
And  what  that  knowledge  which  impairs  your  sense. 

6.  Let  him  not  violate  kind  nature's  laws, 
But  own  man  born  to  live  as  well  as  die. 

7.  The  blood  more  stirs 

To  rouse  a  lion  than  to  start  a  hare. 

8.  He  that  lacks  time  to  mourn  lacks  time  to  mend. 
Eternity  mourns  that. 

9.  It  is  the  curse  of  kings  to  be  attended 

By  slaves  that  take  their  humors  for  a  >varrant 
To  break  within  the  bloody  house  of  life, 
And  on  the  winking  of  authority, 
To  understand  a  law. 

10.    Have  you  brave  sons?    Look  in  the  next  fierce  brawl 
To  see  them  die.    Have  ye  fair  daughters  ?    Look 
To  see  them  live,  torn  from  your  arms,  distained, 
Dishonored,  and  if  ye  dare  call  for  justice, 
Be  answered  by  the  lash. 

EXERCISE  95. 
The  Preposition. 

State  the  use  of  each  italicized  expression  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  He  was  brave  on  the  field  of  battle. 

2.  He  triumphed  in  his  death. 

3.  The  boy  is  very  popular  with  his  playmates. 

4.  Samuel  ofTered  his  seat  to  the  lady. 

5.  The  teacher  gave  the  book  to  Sarah. 

6.  The  slave  was  very  grateful  to  his  master. 

7.  The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 


176         .  A  New  English  Grammar. 

8.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day. 

9.  Good  deeds  return  to  bless  him  who  does  them. 
10.     To  waste  in  youth  is  to  want  in  old  age. 

Define  the  class  of  words  with  which  you  have  been 
dealing.  State  and  illustrate  the  uses  of  the  class.  Name 
the  principal  words  belonging  to  this  class.  Make  out  a  list 
of  the  principal  errors,  made  in  the  use 'of  these  words. 

A  preposition  is  a  relation  word  which  expresses  the  relation 
between  ideas  of  unequal  rank. 

The  preposition  has  two  uses. 

1.  It  may  be  the  relation  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase;  e.  g., 
The  steamer  will  arrive  in  the  evening. 

2.  It  may  express  the  relation  between  an  indirect  object  and 
the  attribute  which  affects  it;  e.  g.,  The  boy  gave  the  book  <o  his 
sister. 

Make  a  complete  outline  of  this  class  of  words. 

EXERCISE  96. 
From  the  expressions  enclosed  in  the  marks  of  parenthe- 
sis in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  select  the  correct  one: 

1.  The  vessel  will  arrive  (within,  inside  of)  two  weeks. 

2.  He  did  not  remember  (sayine,  of  saying)  that  the  thief  was 
tall. 

3.  She  replied,  "Not  that  I  (remember,  remember  of)." 

4.  Is  your  father  (at,  to)  home? 

5.  The  greatest  masters  of  critical  learning  differ  (among,  from, 
with)  one  another. 

6.  They  danced  (round,  around)  the  pole. 

7.  He  was  not  successful,  as  a  rule,  (with,  at)  narrative. 

8.  There  was  the  old  man  in  the  forest  (back  of,  behind)  the 
barn. 

9.  (Behind,  back  of)  his  falsehood,  there  is  a  truth. 


The  Pkeposition.  177 

10.  I  have  no  decided  preference  (between,  among)  these  five 
authors. 

11.  There  is  some  trouble  (among,  between)  the  teacher  and  his 
pupils. 

12.  She  made  a  resolution  (with,  between)  every  mouthful,  never 
to  say  one  word  to  that  magpie  again. 

13.  He  interfered  with   her  sister's  attachment   (to,   for)   Mr. 
Bingley.  ^ 

14.  The  old  clock  on  the-  stairs  frightened  us  (by,  in)  striking 
two. 

15.  Judged  (from,  by)  this  (stand-point,  point  of  view)  he  was 
wanting. 

16.  He  put  the  water  (in,  within)  reach  of  the  dog. 

17.  He  went  (in,  into)  the  house. 

18.  He  was  thrown  (into,  in)  the  mud. 

19.  This  merging  of  self  (into,  in)  mankind  is  noble. 

20.  Put  money  (in,  into)  thy  purse. 

21.  This  discovery  I  made  as  soon  as  I  was  fairly  (in,  into)  the 
room. 

22.  "  Paracelsus  "  shows  Browning's  clever  insight  (into,  of)  man. 

23.  You  have  an  advantage  (of,  over)  me  in  that  you  know  my 
name. 

24.  The  difference  (in,  of)  character  (between,  of)  the  two  men 
(affected,  effected)  their  writings. 

25.  There  is  no  use  (in.  of )  my  trying  to  get  ready. 

26.  The  remainder  of  his  wages  (is,  are)  deposited  (on,  to)  his 
credit. 

27.  A  lady  who  did  not  belong  to  some  church,  would  be  looked 
(on,  at)  askance. 

28.  The  vessel  was  blown  (on,  onto)  the  rocks. 

29.  This  was  brought  about  (by,  through)  the  services  of  friends. 

30.  His  longer  poems  are  of  very  different  stamp  (than,  from) 
his  shorter  ones. 

12 


178  A  New  English  Grammar. 

31.  "Wordsworth's  "Skylark"  is  altogether  different  (to,  from) 
Shelley's. 

32.  A  difference  arose  (between,  among)  the  two  in  their  corres- 
pondence (with,  to)  each  other. 

33.  Your  decision  accords  (to,  with)  mine. 

34.  Gladstone  set  out  (for,  to)  London. 

35.  The  vessel  sank  far  out  (at,  to)  sea. 

36.  I  believe,  (on,  to)  the  contrary,  that  Washington  was  the 
greatest  of  good  men  and  the  best  of  great  men. 

37.  Byron's  "  Farewell  "  was  written  after  his  separation  (from, 
with)  his  wife. 

38.  He  was  accompanied  (by,  with)  his  wife.  , 

39.  I  differ  (from,  with)  you. 

40.  We  parted  (from,  with)  him  at  the  corner. 

41.  He  was  fully  alive  to  the  advantages  of  foreign  methods  (as 
well  as  to  the  necessity  of  using  them,  as  well  as  the  necessity  of 
using  them). 

42.  I  wrote  (to  him,  him)  in  May. 

43.  I  went  to  Chicago  and  (from  thence,  thence)  to  St.  Louis. 

44.  They  (pondered,  pondered  over)  the  question. 

45.  One  calamity  (follows,  follows  after)  another. 

46.  The  teacher  (examined,  examined  into)  the  subject  carefully. 


EXERCISE  97. 

The  Conjunction. 

State  the  use  of  the  italicized  expressions  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  Truth  makes  man  free  but  error  binds  him  in  endless  chains. 

2.  Sincerity  and  modesty  are  essential  to  good  character. 

3.  The  blue  and  white  flower  is  a  pansy. 

4.  Goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  life. 

5.  I  shall  not  proceed /or  danger  lurks  in  my  course. 


The  Conjunction.  179 

-     6.  I  will  have  the  heart  of  him  if  he  forfeit. 

7.  1  know  that  you  will  be  pleased  with  my  friends. 

8.  I  see  that  you  are  disappointed  in  the  book. 

9.  Bread  and  butter  is  palatable  food. 

10.  I  shall  be  sure  to  see  you /or  I  live  in  the  town. 

11.  Swearing  is  neither  profitable  nor  pleasant. 

12.  You  will  have  to  study  or  you  will  get  behind  your  class. 

13.  I  have  seen  other  people  make  the  same  mistake,  therefore,  I 
warn  you. 

14.  Cunning  may  succeed  for  a  time,  but  in  the  end,  murder  will 
out. 

15.  I  oft  delivered  from  his  forfeitures 

Many  that  have  at  times  made  moan  to  me; 
Therefore  he  hates  me. 

Define  the  class  of  words  illustrated  in  the  preceding 
sentences.  What  different  kinds  do  you  discover?  Name 
and  define  each.     State  and  illustrate  the  use  of  each  class. 

The  conjunction  is  a  relation  word  which  merely  expresses  an 
unasserted  relation  between  ideas  of  equal  rank  or  between  thoughts 
of  equal  or  unequal  rank. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  conjunctions: 
1.    The  coordinate  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  which  ex- 
presses the  relation  between  ideas  or  thoughts  of  equal  rank. 

2.  The  suboi'ilinatc  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  which  ex- 
presses the  relation  between  thoughts  of  unequal  rank. 

Make  a  complete  outline  of  this  class  of  words. 

EXERCISE  98. 

From  the  expressions  enclosed  in  the  marks  of  parenthe- 
sis in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  select  the  correct  one: 

1.  I  am  not  sure  (as,  that)  either  my  brother  or  my  friend  can 
lielp  you. 

2.  Then  (as,  like)  all  rich  men  do,  he  appealed  to  the  public. 


180  A  New  English  Gkammar. 

3.  They  were  tdld  not  to  leave  (unless,  without)  they  were  sent 
for. 

4.  Then  these  same  sisters  of  mercy  are  bathing  the  hot  head 
(or,  and)  binding  up  the  broken  limb. 

5.  At  that  time  he  was  going  (and,  or)  coming  twice  a  day. 

6.  My  father  is  a  wise  (but,  and)  cautious  man. 

7.  (Since,  as)  you  are  going  my  way,  I  might  as  well  ride. 

8.  I  loved  Lincoln  (as,  because)  he  was  a  true  man. 

9.  I  consider  him  a  superior  man  in  (both,  all)  intellect,  feel- 
ing, and  courage. 

10.  They  regret  (how,  that)  they  left  school. 

11.  They  told  us  (how,  that)  they  had  just  visited  Switzerland 
and  (how,  that)  they  had  thought  of  boarding  the  Elbe. 

12.  (Though,  if)    science  has    made  much  progress,  there  are 
still  many  problems. 

13.  I  am  sure  that  it  was  neither  my  father  (or,  nor)  my  mother. 

14.  The  book  was  neither  so  interesting  (or,  nor)  so  helpful  as 
we  had  hoped  to  find  it. 

15.  I  have  no  word  from  the  vessel  (or,  nor)  do  I  expect  any  to- 
day. 

16.  (Though  alone  in  the  house,  I  was  alone  in  the  house  but)  I 
was  not  frightened. 

17.  He  looked  at  me  curiously  (as  if,  as  though)  he  knew  me. 

18.  Very  soon,  (though,  however),  the  sun  appeared. 

19.  I  smiled  and  tried  to  make  myself  agreeable  (when,  though) 
my  head  was  almost  bursting. 

20.  (While,  when)  walking  out  this  morning,   I  found  several 
dainty  anemones. 

21.  To  learn  the  subjects  is  a  difficult  task,  (while,  but)  to  teach 
them  is  much  more  difficult. 

22.  She  was  under  the  large  tree  in  the  yard,  (while,  and)  be- 
side her  was  her  book. 


PART  II. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  SECOND  PART. 


The  preceding  pages  deal  largely  with  the  scientific  phase 
of  the  subject  of  grammar.  If  the  student  has  mastered  the 
work  there  presented,  the  subject  of  grammar  appears  to 
him  in  its  logical  relations;  he  has  seen  and  understands  the 
four  circles  of  work,  mentioned  in  the  introduction;  he  sees 
the  relation  of  each  circle  of  the  work  to  every  other  circle, 
and  to  the  subject  as  a  whole;  and  may  be  said  to  have 
organized  the  subject  of  grammar. 

This  knowledge  is  necessary  to  any  conscious  mastery  of 
language  as  an  instrument  in  expressing  thought.  It  is 
especially  necessary  for  the  teacher,  who  is  to  direct  the  child 
in  the  formation  of  language  habits;  for,  how  can  she  hope 
to  guide  the  child  aright  in  the  formation  of  language  habits, 
unless  she  knows  the  principles  which  underlie  correct  lan- 
guage forms? 

But  the  great  weakness  in  the  language  power  of  the 
graduates  of  our  public  and  high  schools,  lies  not  in  their 
knowledge  of  the  science  side,  but  in  their  use  of  the 
language.  It  is  not  that  they  do  not  know  principles,  but 
they  do  not  use  the  language  in  accordance  with  the  princi- 
ples. They  know  that  a  pronoun  which  is  used  in  the 
nominative  relation,  should  have  the  nominative  form;  and 
they  can  "rattle  off"  the  principal  parts  of  irregular  verbs 
fast  enough  to  make  an  ordinary  mortal  dizzy ;  but  at  the 
same  time,  they  go  right  on  saying,  "It  was  not  me  who 
done  it." 

What  can  we  put  into  a  text-book  on  grammar  that  will 
help  students  use  the  language  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 


184  A  New  English  Grammar. 

ciples  which  they  have  learned  ?    How  can  we  help  students 
to  become  proficient  in  the  art  of  grammar? 

Some  devices  and  suggestions  looking  to  this  end  have 
been  given  in  the  preceding  pages.  In  addition  to  efforts 
of  this  kind,  the  student's  language  should  be  carefully 
watched  and  corrected  by  the  teacher  at  all  times.  But  the 
teacher  has  the  students  in  language  only  a  small  part  of 
the  time.  Can  -she,  in  this  brief  period,  counteract  the  in- 
fluence of  the  incorrect  language  they  use  in  the  recitations 
of  all  other  subjects;  of  that  which  they  hear  and  use  upon 
the  street,  the  play -ground,  and  at  home?  Unless  the  teacher 
can  see  to  it  that  the  students  use  good  language  in  their 
recitations  in  history,  geography,  arithmetic,  etc.,  either  by 
carefully  watching  over  their  language  herself,  if  she  teaches 
the  other  subjects,  or  by  obtaining  the  cooperation  of  her 
associates  in  the  matter,  if  other  teachers  have  charge  of  the 
work  in  these  other  subjects,  surely  she  must  be  content 
with  a  low  degree  of  proficiency,  on  the  part  of  her  pupils, 
in  the  use  of  our  language.  As  teachers  of  English,  we  do 
not  make  enough  of  this  point. 

More  can  be  accomplished  in  the  way  of  giving  a  student 
a  mastery  of  the  art  side  of  language  in  one  year's  careful 
supervision  of  his  oral  and  written  language,  than  can  be 
accomplished  by  five  years'  text-book  work  as  it  is  usually 
done  in  the  public  schools.  We  encourage  and  fix  inaccura- 
cies in  language  every  time  a  student  makes  a  mistake  in 
our  hearing,  and  we  do  not  call  his  attention  to  it.  We 
encourage  and  fix  bad  habits  in  language  every  time  we 
call  for  written  work  of  any  kind,  and  do  not  hold  the  pupil 
responsible  for  the  language  he  uses;  especially  is  this  true 
with  pupils  of  the  grades  in  our  public  schools. 

Another  cause  of  the  pupil's  weakness  in  the  use  of  the 


Introduction  to  the  Second  Part.  185 

language  is  the  fact  that  our  recitations  in  school  are  scrappy 
and  disconnected.  The  pupil  talks  only  in  reply  to  the 
teacher's  questions,  and  then  makes  only  one  statement  at  a 
time,  and  this,  too  often,  consists  of  only  a  single  word.  He 
hasn't  much  opportunity  to  show  the  teacher  his  bad  habits 
in  the  use  of  language.  We  rarely  ask  a  pupil  to  stand  and 
talk  continuously  for  even  five  minutes.  We  do  not  ask 
pupils  to  talk  and  write  enough. 

But  if  students  are  to  talk  and  write  they  must  have 
something  about  which  to  talk  and  write.  They  do  not  care 
to  thresh  over  old  straw;  they  will  not  talk  and  write  well, 
if  they  are  compelled  to  say  something  that  every  one 
knows ;  they  want  something  new  and  fresh.  The  greatest 
weakness  in  our  composition  work  is  that  we  do  not  furnish 
pupils  a  motive  for  writing.  We  tell  the  boy  to  write  a 
composition  of  three  pages  on  the  horse.  He  has  no  interest 
in  the  horse ;  knows  nothing  new  about  it ;  does  not  care  to 
say  what  everybody  knows;  has  no  other  motive  for  writing 
than  to  get  the  three  pages  full,  and  his  composition  will 
always  show  it.  But  if  the  boy  is  really  interested  in  some- 
thing; if  he  can  find  out  something  new  about  it,  or  see 
some  new  thought  in  connection  with  it,  he  will  write  much 
better. 

It  is  to  supply  the  material,  to  some  extent,  for  such  work 
as  is  indicated  above,  that  the  following  pages  are  given. 
Let  the  students  analyze  and  discuss  the  selections ;  let  them 
discover  the  idea  which  the  author  is  setting  forth;  the  pur- 
pose in  the  selection  ;  and  let  them  see  how  all  parts  of  the 
selection  contribute  to  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose. 
Let  them  notice  the  beauty  of  the  language  and  its  appro- 
priateness to  express  the  thought.  Let  them  discuss  charac- 
ters, scenes,  and  events ;  and  let  them  write  frequently  about 


186  A  New  English  Grammar. 

them.     Let  them  pursue  mythological  and  historical  refer- 
ences and  write  little  stories  in  explanation  of  them. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  following  selections  may  serve  at  least 
four  purposes : 

1.  They  will  furnish  abundant  sentences  of  sufficient 
variety  to  illustrate  amply  the  work  given  in  the  first  part 
of  this  book. 

2.  In  dealing  with  the  selections/  the  students  will  be- 
come familiar  with  the  language  of  the  author  and  will  un- 
consciously imitate  it. 

3.  The  consideration  of  the  correspondence  between  the 
thought  of  the  selection  and  the  language  in  which  it  is 
expressed,  will  enable  the  student  to  see  the  beauty,  appro- 
priateness, and  strength  of  the  language,  thus  furnishing 
him  an  ideal  with  which  he  can  compare  his  own  language. 

4.  They  will  furnish  interesting  topics  which  will  help 
the  teacher  to  supply  the  student  with  a  motive  for  talking 
and  writing. 


(The  selections  entitled  The  Voyage  and  The  Widow  and  Her  Son  are  taken  from 
the  latest  edition  of  Irving's  Sketch  Book  by  kind  permission  of  the  authorized  pub- 
lishers, G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York.) 


THE  VOYAGE. 

WASHINGTOX  IRVING, 

"  Ships,  ships,  I  will  descrie  you 

Amidst  the  main, 
I  will  come  and  try  you, 
What  you  are  protecting, 
And  projecting, 

What's  your  end  and  aim. 
One  goes  abroad  for  mei'chandise  and  trading, 
Another  stays  to  keep  his  country  from  invading, 
A  third  is  coming  home  with  rich  and  wealthy  lading. 
Halloo !  my  fancie,  whither  wilt  thou  go?  " 

— Old  Poem. 

To  an  American  visiting  Europe,  the  long  voyage  he  has 
to  make  is  an  excellent  preparative.  The  temporary  absence 
of  worldly  scenes  and  employments  produces  a  state  of  mind 
peculiarly  fitted  to  receive  new  and  vivid  impressions.  The 
vast  space  of  waters  that  separates  the  hemispheres  is  like  a 
blank  page  in  existence.  There  is  no  gradual  transition  by 
which,  as  in  Europe,  the  features  and  population  of  one 
country  blend  almost  imperceptibly  with  those  of  another. 
From  the  moment  you  lose  sight  of  the  land  you  have  left, 
all  is  vacancy  until  you  step  on  the  opposite  shore,  and  are 
launched  at  once  into  the  bustle  and  novelties  of  another 
world. 

In  travelling  by  land  there  is  a  continuity  of  scene,  and  a 
connected  succession  of  persons  and  incidents  that  carry  on 
the  story  of  life,  and  lessen  the  effect  of  absence  and  separation. 
We  drag,  it  is  true,  "  a  lengthening  chain  "  at  each  remove 
of  our  pilgrimage  ;  but  the  chain  is  unbroken :  we  can  trace 
it  back  link  by  link  ;  and  we  feel  that  the  last  still  grapples 


188  A  New  English  Grammar. 

us  to  home.  But  a  wide  sea  voyage  severs  us  at  once.  It 
makes  us  conscious  of  being  cast  loose  from  the  secure 
anchorage  of  settled  life,  and  sent  adrift  upon  a  doubtful 
world.  It  interposes  a  gulf,  not  merely  imaginary,  but  real, 
between  us  and  our  homes, — a  gulf  subject  to  tempest  and 
fear  and  uncertainty,  rendering  distance  palpable  and  return 
precarious. 

Such,  at  least,  was  the  case  with  rnyself.  As  I  saw  the 
last  blue  line  of  my  native  land  fade  away  like  a  cloud  in  the 
horizon,  it  seemed  as  if  I  had  closed  one  volume  of  the  world 
and  its  concerns,  and  had  time  for  meditation  before  I  opened 
another.  That  land,  too,  now  vanishing  from  my  view, 
which  contained  all  most  dear  to  me  in  life, — what  vicissi- 
tudes might  occur  in  it,  what  changes  might  take  place  in 
me,  before  I  should  visit  it  again!  Who  can  tell,  when  he  sets 
forth  to  wander,  whither  he  may  be  driven  by  the  uncertain 
currents  of  existence,  or  when  he  may  return,  or  whether  it 
may  ever  be  his  lot  to  revisit  the  scenes  of  his  childhood  ? 

I  said  that  at  sea  all  is  vacancy;  I  should  correct  the 
expression.  To  one  given  to  day-dreaming,  and  fond  of 
losing  himself  in  reveries,  a  sea  voyage  is  full  of  subjects 
for  meditation ;  but  then  they  are  the  wonders  of  the  deep 
and  of  the  air,  and  rather  tend  to  abstract  the  mind  from 
worldly  themes.  I  delighted  to  loll  over  the  quarter-rail- 
ing, or  climb  to  the  main-top,  of  a  calm  day,  and  muse  for 
hours  together  on  the  tranquil  bosom  of  a  summer's  sea;  to 
gaze  upon  the  piles  of  golden  clouds  just  peering  above 
the  horizon,  fancy  them  some  fairy  realms,  and  people  them 
with  a  creation  of  my  own  ;  to  watch  the  gentle  undulating 
billows,  rolling  their  silver  volumes  as  if  to  die  away  on 
those  happy  shores. 

There  was  a  delicious  sensation  of  mingled  security  and 


The  Voyage.  189 

awe  while  I  looked  down,  from  my  giddy  height,  on  the 
monsters  of  the  deep  at  their  uncouth  gambols, — shoals  of 
porpoises  tumbling  about  the  bow  of  the  ship;  the  grampus 
slowly  heaving  his  huge  form  above  the  surface;  or  the 
ravenous  shark,  darting,  like  a  spectre,  through  the  blue 
waters.  My  imagination  would  conjure  up  all  that  I  had 
heard  or  rea,d  of  the  watery  world  beneath  me, — of  the  finny 
herds  that  roam  its  fathomless  valleys,  of  the  shapeless 
monsters  that  lurk  among  the  very  foundations  of  the  earth, 
and  of  those  wild  phantasms  that  swell  the  tales  of  fishermen 
and  sailors. 

Sometimes  a  distant  sail,  gliding  along  the  edge  of  the 
ocean,  would  be  another  theme  of  idle  speculation.  How 
interesting  this  fragment  of  a  world,  hastening  to  rejoin  the 
great  mass  of  existence!  What  a  glorious  monument  of 
human  invention,  which  has  in  a  manner  triumphed  over 
wind  and  wave ;  has  brought  the  ends  of  the  world  into 
communion ;  has  established  an  interchange  of  blessings, 
pouring  into  the  sterile  regions  of  the  north  all  the  luxuries 
of  the  south ;  has  diffused  the  light  of  knowledge  and  the 
charities  of  cultivated  life;  and  has  thus  bound  together 
those  scattered  portions  of  the  human  race,  between  which 
nature  seemed  to  have  thrown  an  insurmountable  barrier. 

We  one  day  descried  some  shapeless  object  drifting  at  a 
distance.  At  sea,  everything  that  breaks  the  monotony  of 
the  surrounding  expanse  attracts  attention.  It  proved  to  be 
the  mast  of  a  ship  that  must  have  been  completely  wrecked; 
for  there  were  the  remains  of  handkerchiefs,  by  which  some 
of  the  crew  had  fastened  themselves  to  this  spar,  to  prevent 
their  being  washed  off"  by  the  waves.  There  was  no  trace  by 
which  the  name  of  the  ship  could  be  ascertained.  The  wreck 
had  evidently  drifted  about  for  many  months;  clusters  of 


190  A  New  English  Grammar. 

shellfish  had  fastened  about  it,  and  long  sea-weeds  flaunted 
at  its  sides.  But  where,  thought  I,  is  the  crew?  Their 
struggle  has  long  been  over, — they  have  gone  down  amidst 
the  roar  of  the  tempest, — their  bones  lie  whitening  among 
the  caverns  of  the  deep.  Silence,  oblivion,  like  the  waves, 
have  closed  over  them,  and  no  one  can  tell  the  story  of  their 
end.  What  sighs  have  been  wafted  after  that  ship!  What 
prayers  offered  .up  at  the  deserted  fiVeside  at  home!  How 
often  has  the  mistress,  the  wife,  the  mother,  pored  over  the 
daily  news,  to  catch  some  casual  intelligence  of  this  rover  of 
the  deep!  How  has  expectation  darkened  into  anxiety, — 
anxiety  into  dread, — and  dread  into  despair!  Alas!  not  one 
memento  may  ever  return  for  love  to  cherish.  All  that  may 
ever  be  known  is  that  she  sailed  from  her  port,  "and  was 
never  heard  of  more!  " 

The  sight  of  this  wreck,  as  usual,  gave  rise  to  many  dismal 
anecdotes.  This  was  particularly  the  case  in  the  evening, 
when  the  weather,  which  had  hitherto  been  fair,  began  to  look 
wild  and  threatening,  and  gave  indications  of  one  of  those 
sudden  storms  which  will  sometimes  break  in  upon  the 
serenity  of  a  summer  voyage.  As  we  sat  around  the  dull 
light  of  a  lamp  in  the  cabin,  that  made  the  gloom  more 
ghastly,  every  one  had  his  tale  of  shipwreck  and  disaster.  I 
was  particularly  struck  with  a  short  one  related  by  the  captain. 

"  As  I  was  once  sailing,"  said  he,  "  in  a  fine  stout  ship  across 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  one  of  those  heavy  fogs  which 
prevail  in  those  parts  rendered  it  impossible  for  us  to  see  far 
ahead,  even  in  the  daytime  ;  but  at  night  the  weather  was  so 
thick  that  we  could  not  distinguish  any  object  at  twice  the 
length  of  the  ship.  I  kept  lights  at  the  mast-head,  and  a 
constant  watch  forward  to  look  out  for  fishing-smacks,  which 
are  accustomed  to  lie  at  anchor  on  the  banks.     The  wind 


The  Voyage.  191 

was  blowing  a  smacking  breeze,  and  we  were  going  at  a  great 
rate  through  the  water.  Suddenly  the  watch  gave  the  alarm 
of  '  A  sail  ahead ! ' — it  was  scarcely  uttered  before  we  were 
upon  her.  She  was  a  small  schooner,  at  anchor,  with  her 
broadside  toward  us.  The  crew  were  all  asleep,  and  had 
neglected  to  hoist  a  light.  We  struck  her  just  amidships. 
The  force,  the  size,  and  weight  of  our  vessel  bore  her  down 
below  the  waves ;  we  passed  over  her  and  were  hurried  on  our 
course.  As  the  crashing  wreck  was  sinking  beneath  us,  I 
had  a  glimpse  of  two  or  three  half-naked  wretches  rushing 
from  her  cabin;  they  just  started  from  their  beds,  to  be  swal- 
lowed shrieking  by  the  waves.  I  heard  their  drowning 
cry  mingling  with  the  wind.  The  blast  that  bore  it  to  our 
ears  swept  us  out  of  all  further  hearing.  I  shall  never  forget 
that  cry!  It  was  some  time  before  we  could  put  the  ship 
about,  she  was  under  such  headway.  We  returned,  as  nearly 
as  we  could  guess,  to  the  place  where  the  smack  had  anchored. 
We  cruised  about  for  several  hours  in  the  dense  fog.  We 
fired  signal-guns,  and  listened  if  we  might  hear  the  halloo  of 
any  survivors;  but  all  was  silent, — We  never  saw  or  heard 
anything  of  them  more." 

I  confess  these  stories,  for  a  time,  put  an  end  to  all  my  fine 
fancies.  The  storm  increased  with  the  night.  The  sea  was 
lashed  into  tremendous  confusion.  There  was  a  fearful,  sul- 
len sound  of  rushing  waves  and  broken  surges.  Deep  called 
unto  deep.  At  times  the  black  volume  of  clouds  overhead 
seemed  rent  asunder  by  flashes  of  lightning,  which  quivered 
along  the  foaming  Ijillows,  and  made  the  succeeding  darkness 
doubly  terrible.  The  thunders  bellowed  over  the  wild  waste 
of  waters,  and  were  echoed  and  prolonged  by  the  mountain 
waves.  As  I  saw  the  ship  staggering  and  plunging  among 
these  roaring  caverns,  it  seemed  miraculous  that  she  regained 


192  A  New  English  Grammar. 

her  balance,  or  preserved  her  buoyancy.  Her  yards  would 
dip  into  the  water:  her  bow  was  almost  buried  beneath  the 
waves.  Sometimes  an  impending  surge  appeared  ready  to 
overwhelm  her,  and  nothing  but  a  dexterous  movement  of 
the  helm  preserved  her  from  the  shock. 

When  I  retired  to  my  cabin,  the  awful  scene  still  followed 
me.  The  whistling  of  the  wind  through  the  rigging  sounded 
like  funereal  wailings.  The  creaking  of  the  masts,  the  strain- 
ing and  groanings  of  bulkheads,  as  the  ship  labored  in  the 
weltering  sea,  were  frightful.  As  I  heard  the  waves  rushing 
along  the  sides  of  the  ship,  and  roaring  in  my  very  ear,  it 
seemed  as  if  Death  were  raging  round  this  floating  prison, 
seeking  for  his  prey;  the  mere  starting  of  a  nail,  the  yawning 
of  a  seam,  might  give  him  entrance.  / 

A  fine  day,  however,  with  a  tranquil  sea  and  lavoring 
breeze,  soon  put  all  these  dismal  reflections  to  flight.  It  is 
impossible  to  resist  the  gladdening  influence  of  fine  weather 
and  fair  wind  at  sea.  When  the  ship  is  decked  out  in  all 
her  canvas,  every  sail  swelled  and  careering  gayly  over  the 
curling  waves,  how  lofty,  how  gallant,  she  appears, — how  she 
seems  to  lord  it  over  the  deep! 

I  might  fill  a  volume  with  the  reveries  of  a  sea  voyage,  for 
with  me  it  is  almost  a  continual  reverie, — but  it  is  time  to 
get  to  shore. 

It  was  a  fine  sunny  morning  when  the  thrilling  cry  of 
"Land!"  was  given  from  the  mast-head.  None  but  those 
who  have  experienced  it  can  form  an  idea  of  the  delicious 
throng  of  sensations  which  rush  into  an  American's  bosom 
when  he  first  comes  in  sight  of  Europe.  There  is  a  volume 
of  associations  with  the  very  name.  It  is  the  land  of  promise, 
teeming  with  everything  of  which  his  childhood  has  -heard 
or  on  which  his  studious  years  have  pondered. 


The  Voyage.  193 

From  that  time  until  the  moment  of  arrival,  it  was  all 
feverish  excitement.  The  ships  of  war,  that  prowled  like 
guardian  giants  along  the  coast;  the  headlands  of  Ireland, 
stretching  out  into  the  channel ;  the  Welsh  mountains,  tower- 
ing into  the  clouds,— all  were  objects  of  intense  interest.  As 
we  sailed  up  the  Mersey,  I  reconnoitered  the  shores  with  a 
telescope.  My  eye  dwelt  with  delight  on  neat  cottages,  with 
their  trim  shrubberies  and  green  grass-plots.  I  saw  the 
mouldering  tuin  of  an  abbey  overrun  with  ivy,  and  the  taper 
spire  of  a  village  church  rising  from  the  brow  of  a  neighboring 
hill, — all  were  characteristic  of  England. 

The  tide  and  wind  were  so  favorable  that  the  ship  was 
enabled  to  come  at  once  to  the  pier.  It  was  thronged  with 
people;  some  idle  lookers-on,  others  eager  expectants  of 
friends  or  relatives.  I  could  distinguish  the  merchant  to 
whom  the  ship  was  consigned.  I  knew  him  by  his  calculat- 
ing brow  and  restless  air.  His  hands  were  thrust  into  his 
pockets;  he  was  whistling  thoughtfully,  and  walking  to  and 
fro,  a  small  space  having  been  accorded  him  by  the  crowd  in 
deference  to  his  temporary  importance.  There  were  repeated 
chcerings  and  salutations  interchanged  between  the  shore 
and  the  ship,  as  friends  happened  to  recognize  each  other. 

I  particularly  noticed  one  young  woman  of  humble  dress, 
but  interesting  demeanor.  She  was  leaning  forward  from 
among  the  crowd  ;  her  eye  hurried  over  the  ship  as  it  neared 
the  shore,  to  catch  some  wished-for  countenance.  She  seemed 
disappointed  and  agitated,  when  I  heard  a  faint  voice  call 
her  name.  It  was  from  a  poor  sailor  who  had  been  ill  all  the 
voyage,  and  had  excited  the  sympathy  of  every  one  on  board. 
When  the  weather  was  fine,  his  messmates  had  spread  a  mat- 
tress for  him  on  deck  in  the  shade,  but  of  late  his  illness  had 
60  increased  that  he  had  taken  to  his  hammock,  and  only 
13 


194  A  New  English  Grammar. 

breathed  a  wish  that  he  might  see  his  wife  before  he  died. 
He  had  been  helped  on  deck  as  we  came  up  the  river,  and 
was  now  leaning  against  the  shrouds,  with  a  countenance  so 
wasted,  so  pale,  so  ghastly,  that  it  was  no  wonder  even  the 
eye  of  affection  did  not  recognize  him.  But  at  the  sound  of 
his  voice,  her  eye  darted  on  his  features;  it  read,  at  once,  a 
whole  volume  of  sorrow;  she  clasped  her  hands,  uttered  a 
faint  shriek,  and  stood  wringing  them  in  silent  agony. 

All  now  was  hurry  and  bustle, — the  meetings  of  acquaint- 
ances, the  greetings  of  friends,  the  consultations  of  men  of 
business.  I  alone  was  solitary  and  idle.  I  had  no  friend  to 
meet,  no  cheering  to  receive.  I  stepped  upon  the  land  of  my 
forefathers,  but  felt  that  I  was  a  stranger  in  the  land. 


SCHEME  FOR  THE  STUDY  OP  A  SELECTION. 

I.    The  Idea  Treated. 

What  is  the  idea  about  which  the  author  is  writing  in  this 
selection  ?  What  is  the  idea  treated  by  the  author?  What 
is  the  subject  of  the  selection?  What  idea  is  the  author 
trying  to  put  before  us? 

II.     The  Purpose  Embodied  in  the  Selection. 

What  is  the  purpose  embodied  in  the  selection?  What 
effect  is  produced  on  our  minds  by  this  selection?  Think 
how  you  felt  before  you  read  this  selection,  then  how  you 
feel  since  you  have  read  it;  what  change  has  it  made  in 
you?  Is  there  a  lesson  taught  by  the  selection;  if  so,  what 
is  the  lesson?  What  do  you  think  the  author  hoped  to  ac- 
complish by  writing  this  selection? 

III.  The  Means  Employed  in  the  Accomplishment  of  the  Purpose. 
Mention  one  point  that  the  author  has  presented  about 
the  idea  treated.  Why  did  he  tell  us  this?  How  does  it 
help  to  accomplish  the  purpose  ?  Read  the  first  paragraph. 
Why  does  the  author  tell  us  that  which  is  expressed  in  it? 
How  does  this  help  to  accomplish  the  purpose?    Show  how 


9 


Scheme  for  the  Study  of  a  Selection.  195 

the  thought  of  each  paragraph  helps  to  accompUsh  the  pur- 
pose.   Has  the  author  told  all  that  could  be  \A-ritten  about 
the  idea  treated?    Mention  some  things  which  he  has  not 
told  us.     Why  does  he  not  tell  us  these  things?    Would 
they  help  to  accomplish  the  purpose?    Suppose  he  had  left 
out  the  fourth  paragraph,  would  the  selection  be  complete  ? 
Why?    Suppose  he  had  written  the  sixth  paragraph  before 
the  third,  would  the  purpose  be  just  as  well  accomplished? 
Why?    Is  it  necessary  that  the  thought  of  the  first  para- 
graph be  presented  first;  the  second,  next;  the  third,  next, 
etc.,  to  the  end :  or  could  the  purpose  be  accomplished  just 
as  well,  if  the  points  were  presented  in  a  different  order? 
Why?    Show  what  you  think  the  author  must  have  done 
in  writing  this  selection.     If  you  were  writing  a  composi- 
tion, what  would  you  need  to  do  first,  second,  third? 
Note. — It  will  be  seen  that  the  preceding  outline  may  be  used  in 
dealing  with  any  selection.     The  teacher  should  first  work  out  all 
the  points  carefully  with  the  children  in  recitation.     The  questions 
in  the  outline -have  been  repeated  and  stated  in  many  diflerent  ways 
in  order  to  make  them  clear  to  the  children.     Perhaps,  with  some 
clas.ses,  the  teacher  will  need  to  make  them  still  more  simple.     It 
will  take  several  lessons  to  work  out  the  thought  of  the  selection 
well  in  this  way.    After  this  has  been  carefully  done,  the  teacher 
may  ask  the  pupils  to  write  a  paper  embodying  the  following  points : 
(1).    The  idea  treated  in  the  selection.     (2).     The  purpose  embodied 
in  the  selection.     (.3).     The  means  employed  in  the  accomplishment 
of  the  purpose.     Perhaps  it  will  be  more  simple  to  tell  them   to 
write  a  paper,  stating  the  idea  treated  in  the  selection  ;  the  purpose 
embodied   in  the  selection ;  and  showing  how  the  author  has  ac- 
complished this  purpose. 

Teach  children  a  neat  form  for  their  compositions,  the  proper 
margins,  the  idea  of  the  paragraph,  and  require  neat  work  of  them 
at  all  times.  (See  the  author's  elementary  book,  "  Language  Work 
for  the  Grades.") 

Notice  the  punctuation,  spelling,  use  of  capitals,  sentence  con- 
struction, etc.  Read  and  correct  the  compositions  in  class,  rewrite 
them,  etc.,  always  holding  the  children  strictly  responsible  for  all 
the  work  you  require  of  them. 


196  A  New  English  Grammar. 

THE  WIDOW  AND  HER  SON 

WASHINGTON  IRVING. 

Pittie  olde  age,  within  whose  silver  haires 
Honour  and  reverence  evermore  have  rained. 

— Marlowe's  Tamburlaine. 

Those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  remarking  such  matters 
must  have  noticed  the  passive  quiet  of  an  English  landscape 
on  Sunday.  The  clacking  of  the  mill,  the  regularly  recurring 
stroke  of  the  flail,  the  din  of  the  blacksmith's  hammer,  the 
whistling  of  the  ploughman,  the  jattling  of  the  cart,  and  all 
other  sounds  of  rural  labor,  are  suspended.  The  very  farm- 
dogs  bark  less  frequently,  being  less  disturbed  by  passing 
travellers.  At  such  times  I  have  almost  fancied  the  wind 
sunk  into  quiet,  and  that  the  sunny  landscape,  with  its  fresh 
green  tints  melting  into  blue  haze,  enjoyed  the  hallowed 

calm. 

"Sweet  day,  so  pure,  so  calm,  so  bright, 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky." 

Well  was  it  ordained  that  the  day  of  devotion  should  be  a 
day  of  rest.  The  holy  repose  which  reigns  over  the  face  of 
nature  has  its  moral  influence;  every  restless  passion  is 
charmed  down,  and  we  feel  the  natural  religion  of  the  soul 
gently  springing  up  within  us.  For  my  part,  there  are  feel- 
ings that  visit  me  in  a  country  church,  amid  the  beautiful 
serenity  of  nature,  which  I  experience  nowhere  else ;  and  if 
not  a  more  religious,  I  think  I  am  a  better  man  on  Sunday 
than  on  any  other  day  of  the  seven. 

During  my  recent  residence  in  the  country  I  used  fre- 
quently to  attend  at  the  old  village  church.  Its  shadowy 
aisles,  its  mouldering  monuments,  its  dark  oaken  panelling, 
all  reverend  with  the  gloom  of  departed  years,  seemed  to  fit 
it  for  the  haunt  of  solemn  meditation ;  but  being  in  a  wealthy, 


The  "Widow  and  Her  ISon.  197 

aristocratic  neighborhood,  the  glitter  of  fashion  penetrated 
even  into  the  sanctuary,  and  I  felt  myself  continually  thrown 
back  upon  the  world  by  the  frigidity  and  pomp  of  the  poor 
worms  around  me.  The  only  being  in  the  whole  congrega- 
tion who  appeared  thoroughly  to  feel  the  humble  and  pros- 
trate piety  of  a  true  Christian  was  a  poor,  decrepit  old  woman, 
bending  under  the  weight  of  years  and  infirmities.  She  bore 
the  trace  of  something  better  than  abject  poverty.  The  lin- 
gerings  of  decent  pride  were  visible  in  her  appearance.  Her 
dress,  though  humble  in  the  extreme,  was  scrupulously 
clean.  Some  trivial  respect,  too,  had  been  awarded  her,  for 
she  did  not  take  her  seat  among  the  village  poor,  but  sat 
alone  on  the  steps  of  the  altar.  She  seemed  to  have  survived 
all  love,  all  friendship,  all  society;  and  to  have  nothing  left 
her  but  the  hopes  of  heaven.  When  I  saw  her  feebly  rising 
and  bending  her  aged  form  in  prayer;  habitually  conning 
her  prayer-book,  which  her  palsied  hand  and  failing  eyes 
would  not  permit  her  to  read,  but  which  she  evidently  knew 
by  heart;  I  felt  persuaded  that  the  faltering  voice  of  that  poor 
woman  rose  to  heaven  far  before  the  responses  of  the  clerk, 
the  swell  of  the  organ,  or  the  chanting  of  the  choir ! 

I  am  fond  of  loitering  about  country  churches,  and  this 
was  so  delightfully  situated  that  it  frequently  attracted  me. 
It  stood  on  a  knoll,  round  which  a  small  stream  made  a 
beautiful  bend,  and  then  wound  its  way  through  a  long  reach 
of  soft  meadow  scenery.  The  church  was  surrounded  by 
yew-trees  which  seemed  almost  coeval  with  itself.  Its  tall 
Gothic  spire  shot  up  lightly  from  among  them,  with  rooks 
and  crows  generally  wheeling  about  it.  I  was  seated  there 
one  still  sunny  morning,  watching  two  laborers  who  were 
digging  a  grave.  They  had  chosen  one  of  the  most  remote 
and  neglected  corners  of  the  churchyard,  where,  from  the 


198  A  New  English  Grammar. 

number  of  nameless  graves  around,  it  would  appear  that  the 
indigent  and  friendless  were  huddled  into  the  earth.  I  was 
told  that  the  new-made  grave  was  for  the  only  son  of  a  poor 
widow.  While  I  was  meditating  on  the  distinctions  of 
worldly  rank  which  extend  thus  down  into  the  very  dust, 
the  toll  of  the  bell  announced  the  approach  of  the  funeral. 
They  were  the  obsequies  of  poverty,  with  which  pride  had 
nothing  to  do:  A  coffin  of  the  plainest  material,  without 
pall  or  other  covering,  was  borne  by  some  of  the  villagers. 
The  sexton  walked  before  with  an  air  of  cold  indifference. 
There  were  no  mock  mourners  in  the  trappings  of  affected 
Avoe;  but  there  was  one  real  mourner  who  feebly  tottered 
after  the  corpse.  It  was  the  aged  mother  of  the  deceased, — 
the  poor  old  woman  whom  I  had  seen  seated  on  the  steps  of 
the  altar.  She  was  supported  by  a  humble  friend,  who  was 
endeavoring  to  comfort  her.  A  few  of  the  neighboring  poor 
had  joined  the  train,  and  some  children  of  the  village  were 
running  hand  in  hand,  now  shouting  with  unthinking  mirth, 
and  now  pausing  to  gaze  with  childish  curiosity  on  the  grief 
of  the  mourner. 

As  the  funeral  train  approached  the  grave,  the  parson  issued 
from  the  church  porch,  arrayed  in  the  surplice,  with  prayer 
book  in  hand,  and  attended  by  the  clerk.  The  service,  how- 
ever, was  a  mere  act  of  charit3^  The  deceased  had  been  desti- 
tute, and  the  survivor  was  penniless.  It  was  shuffled  through, 
therefore,  in  form,  but  coldly  and  unfeelingly.  The  well-fed 
priest  moved  but  a  few  steps  from  the  church  door;  his  voice 
could  scarcely  be  heard  at  the  grave,  and  never  did  I  hear 
the  funeral  service, — that  sublime  and  touching  ceremony, — 
turned  into  such  a  frigid  mummery  of  words. 

I  approached  the  grave.  The  coffin  was  placed  on  the 
ground.     On  it  were  inscribed  the  name  and  age  of  the  de- 


The  Widow  and  Her  Son.  199 

ceased, — "George  Somers,  aged  twenty-six  years."  The  poor 
mother  had  been  assisted  to  kneel  down  at  the  head  of  it. 
Her  withered  hands  were  clasped,  as  if  in  prayer,  but  I  could 
perceive  by  a  feeble  rocking  of  the  body,  and  a  convulsive 
motion  of  the  lips,  that  she  was  gazing  on  the  last  relics  of 
her  son  with  the  yearnings  of  a  mother's  heart. 

Preparations  were  made  to  deposit  the  coffin  in  the  earth. 
There  was  that  bustling  stir  which  breaks  so  harshly  on  the 
feelings  of  grief  and  affection ;  directions  given  in  the  cold 
tones  of  business;  the  striking  of  spades  into  sand  and  gravel; 
which,  at  the  grave  of  those  we  love,  is,  of  all  sounds,  the 
most  withering.  The  bustle  around  seemed  to  waken  the 
mother  from  a  wretched  reverie.  She  raised  her  glazed  eyes 
and  looked  about  with  a  faint  wildness.  As  the  men  ap- 
proached with  cords  to  lower  the  coffin  into  the  grave,  she 
wrung  her  hands  and  broke  into  an  agony  of  grief.  The  poor 
woman  who  attended  her  took  her  by  the  arm  endeavoring 
to  raise  her  from  the  earth  and  to  whisper  something  like 
consolation.  "Nay,  now,  nay,  now — don't  take  it  so  sorely 
to  heart."  She  could  only  shake  her  head  and  wring  her 
hands,  as  one  not  to  be  comforted. 

As  they  lowered  the  body  into  the  earth,  the  creaking  of 
the  cords  seemed  to  agonize  her;  but  when,  on  some  acci- 
dental obstruction,  there  was  a  jostling  of  the  coffin,  all  the 
tenderness  of  the  mother  burst  forth  ;  as  if  any  harm  could 
come  to  him  who  was  far  beyond  the  reach  of  worldly  suf- 
fering. 

I  could  see  no  more — my  heart  swelled  into  my  throat — 
my  eyes  filled  with  tears — I  felt  as  if  T  were  acting  a  barbar- 
ous part  in  standing  by  and  gazing  idly  on  this  scene  of  ma- 
ternal anguish.  I  wandered  to  another  part  of  the  church- 
yard, where  I  remained  until  the  funeral  train  had  dispersed. 


200  A  New  English  Grammar. 

When  I  saw  the  mother  slowly  and  painfully  quitting  the 
grave,  leaving  behind  her  the  remains  of  all  that  was  dear  to 
her  on  earth,  and  returning  to  silence  and  destitution,  my 
heart  ached  for  her.  What,  thought  I,  are  the  distresses  of 
the  rich?  They  have  friends  to  soothe — pleasures  to  beguile — 
a  world  to  divert  and  dissipate  their  griefs.  What  are  the 
sorrows  of  .  the  young?  Their  growing  minds  soon  close 
above  the  wound — their  elastic  spirits  soon  rise  beneath  the 
pressure — their  green  and  ductile  affections  soon  twine  round 
new  objects.  But  the  sorrows  of  the  poor,  who  have  no  out- 
ward appliances  to  soothe — the  sorrows  of  the  aged,  with 
whom  life  at  best  is  but  a  wintry  day,  and  who  can  look  for 
no  after-growth  of  joy — the  sorrows  of  a  widow,  aged,  soli- 
tary, destitute,  mourning  over  an  only  son,  the  last  solace  of 
her  years, — these  are  indeed  sorrows  which  make  us  feel  the 
impotency  of  consolation. 

It  was  some  time  before  I  left  the  churchyard.  On  my 
way  homeward  I  met  with  the  woman  who  had  acted  as 
comforter;  she  was  just  returning  from  accompanying  the 
mother  to  her  lonely  habitation,  and  I  drew  from  her  some 
particulars  connected  with  the  affecting  scene  I  had  wit- 
nessed. 

The  parents  of  the  deceased  had  resided  in  the  village  from 
childhood.  They  had  inhabited  one  of  the  neatest  cottages, 
and  by  various  rural  occupations,  and  the  assistance  of  a 
small  garden,  had  supported  themselves  creditably  and  com- 
fortably, and  led  a  happy  and  blameless  life.  They  had  one 
son,  who  had  grown  up  to  be  the  staff  and  pride  of  their 
age.  "Oh,  sir! "  said  the  good  woman,  "  he  was  such  a  comely 
lad,  so  sweet-tempered,  so  kind  to  every  one  around  him,  so 
dutiful  to  his  parents!  It  did  one's  heart  good  to  see  him  of 
a  Sunday,  drest  out  in  his  best,  so  tall,  so  straight,  so  cheery, 


The  Widow  and  Her  Son.  201 

supporting  his  old  mother  to  church, — for  she  was  always 
fonder  of  leaning  on  George's  arm  than  on  her  good-man's; 
and,  poor  soul,  she  might  well  be  proud  of  him,  for  a  finer 
lad  there  was  not  in  the  country  round." 

Unfortunately,  the  son  was  tempted,  during  a  year  of 
scarcity  and  agricultural  hardships,  to  enter  into  the  service 
of  one  of  the  small  craft  that  plied  on  a  neighboring  river. 
He  had  not  been  long  in  this  employ  when  he  was  entrapped 
by  a  press-gang  and  carried  off  to  sea.  His  parents  received 
tidings  of  his  seizure,  but  beyond  that  they  could  learn  noth- 
ing. It  was  the  loss  of  their  main  prop.  The  father,  who 
was  already  infirm,  grew  heartless  and  melancholy,  and  sunk 
into  his  grave.  The  widow,  left  lonely  in  her  age  and  feeble- 
ness, could  no  longer  support  herself,  and  came  upon  the 
parish.  Still  there  was  a  kind  feeling  towards  her  throughout 
the  village,  and  a  certain  respect  as  being  one  of  the  oldest 
inhabitants.  As  no  one  applied  for  the  cottage  in  which  she 
had  passed  so  many  happy  days,  she  was  permitted  to  remain 
in  it,  where  she  lived  solitary  and  almost  helpless.  The  few 
wants  of  nature  were  chiefly  supplied  from  the  scanty  pro- 
ductions of  her  little  garden,  which  the  neighbors  would  now 
and  then  cultivate  for  her.  It  was  but  a  few  days  before  the 
time  at  which  these  circumstances  were  told  me,  that  she  was 
gathering  some  vegetables  for  her  repast,  when  she  heard  the 
cottage  door  which  faced  the  garden  suddenly  oi)ened.  A 
stranger*  came  out  and  seemed  to  be  looking  eagerly  and 
wildly  around.  He  was  dressed  in  seamen's  clothes,  was 
emaciated  and  ghastly  pale,  and  bore  the  air  of  one  broken 
by  sickness  and  hard.ships.  He  saw  her,  and  hastened  to- 
wards her,  but  liis  steps  were  faint  and  faltering;  he  sank  on 
his  knees  before  her,  and  sobbed  Hke  a  child.  The  poor  wo- 
man gazed   upon  him  with  a  vacant   and  wandering  eye. 


202  A  New  English  Grammar. 

"Oh,  my  dear,  dear  mother!  don't  you  know  your  son?  your 
poor  boy  George?''  It  was  indeed  the  wreck  of  her  once 
noble  lad,  who,  shattered  by  wounds,  by  sickness  and  foreign 
imprisonment,  had  at  length  dragged  his  wasted  limbs  home- 
ward to  repose  among  the  scenes  of  his  childhood. 

I  will  not  attempt  to  detail  the  particulars  of  such  a  meet- 
ing, where  sorrow  and  joy  were  so  conipletely  blended:  still 
he  was  alive!  he-was  come  home!  he  might  yet  live  to  com- 
fort and  cherish  her  old  age!  Nature,  however,  was  exhaust- 
ed in  him;  and  if  anything  had  been  wanting  to  finish  the 
work  of  fate,  the  desolation  of  his  native  cottage  would  have 
been  sufficient.  He  stretched  himself  on  the  pallet  on  which 
his  widowed  mother  had  passed  many  a  sleepless  night, 
and  he  never  rose  from  it  again. 

The  villagers,  when  they  heard  that  George  Somers  had 
returned,  crowded  to  see  him,  offering  every  comfort  and 
assistance  that  their  humble  means  afforded.  He  was  too 
weak,  however,  to  talk, — he  could  onl}^  look  his  thanks.  His 
mother  was  his  constant  attendant,  and  he  seemed  unwill- 
ing to  be  helped  by  any  other  hand. 

There  is  something  in  sickness  that  breaks  down  the  pride 
of  manhood;  that  softens  the  heart,  and  brings  it  back  to  the 
feelings  of  infancy.  Who  that  has  languished,  even  in  ad- 
vanced life,  in  sickness  and  despondency;  who  that  has  pined 
on  a  weary  bed  in  the  neglect  and  loneliness  of  a  foreign  land; 
but  has  thought  on  the  mother  "that  looked  on  his  child- 
hood," that  smoothed  his  pillow,  and  administered  to  his 
helplessness?  Oh!  there  is  an  enduring  tenderness  in  the 
love  of  a  mother  to  her  son  that  transcends  all  other  affections 
of  the  heart.  It  is  neither  to  be  chilled  by  selfishness,  nor 
daunted  by  danger,  nor  weakened  by  worthlessness,  nor  stifled 
by  ingratitude.     She  will  sacrifice  every  comfort  to  his  con- 


The  Widow  and  Her  Sox.  203 

venience;  she  will  surrender  every  pleasure  to  his  enjoyment; 
she  will  glory  in  his  fame,  and  exult  in  his  prosperity;  and,  if 
misfortune  overtake  him,  he  will  be  the  dearer  to  her  from 
misfortune;  and  if  disgrace  settle  upon  his  name,  she  will 
still  love  and  cherish  him  in  spite  of  his  disgrace;  and  if  all 
the  world  beside  cast  him  off,  she  will  be  all  the  world  to 
him. 

Poor  George  Somers  had  known  what  it  was  to  be  in  sick- 
ness, and  none  to  soothe;  lonely  and  in  prison,  and  none  to 
visit  him.  He  could  not  endure  his  mother  from  his  sight; 
if  she  moved  away,  his  eye  would  follow  her.  She  would  sit 
for  hours  by  his  bed,  watching  him  as  he  slept.  Sometimes 
he  would  start  from  a  feverish  dream,  and  look  anxiously  up 
until  he  saw  her  bending  over  him  ;  when  he  would  take  her 
hand,  lay  it  on  his  bosom,  and  fall  asleep  with  the  tranquil- 
ity of  a  child.     In  this  way  he  died. 

My  first  impulse  on  hearing  this  humble  tale  of  affliction 
was  to  visit  the  cottage  of  the  mourner,  and  administer  pe- 
cuniary assistance,  and,  if  possible,  comfort.  I  found,  how- 
ever, on  inquiry,  that  the  good  feelings  of  the  villagers  had 
prompted  them  to  do  everything  that  the  case  admitted;  and 
as  the  poor  knoAV  best  how  to  console  each  other's  sorrows,  I 
did  not  venture  to  intrude. 

The  next  Sunday  I  was  at  the  village  church;  when,  to  my 
surprise,  I  saw  the  poor  old  woman  tottering  down  the  aisle 
to  her  accustomed  seat  on  the  steps  of  the  altar. 

She  had  made  an  effort  to  put  on  something  like  mourning 
for  her  son;  and  nothing  could  be  more  touching  than  this 
struggle  between  pious  affection  and  utter  poverty:  a  black 
ribbon  or  so,  a  faded  black  handkerchief,  and  one  or  two 
more  such  humble  attempts  to  express  by  outward  signs  that 
grief  which  passes  show.     When  I  looked  round  upon  the 


204  A  New  English  Grammar. 

storied  monuments,  the  stately  hatchments,  the  cold  marble 
pomp  with  which  grandeur  mourned  magnificently  over  de- 
parted pride,  and  turned  to  this  poor  widow,  bowed  down  by 
age  and  sorrow  at  the  altar  of  her  God,  and  offering  up  the 
prayers  and  praises  of  a  pious,  though  a  broken  heart,  I  felt 
that  this  living  monument  of  real  grief  was  worth  them  all! 
I  related  her  story  to  some  of  the  wealthy  members  of  the 
congregation,  and  they  were  moved  by  it.  They  exerted 
themselves  to  render  her  situation  more  comfortable,  and  to 
lighten  her  afflictions.  It  was,  however,  but  smoothing  a 
few  steps  to  the  grave.  In  the  course  of  a  Sunday  or  two 
after,  she  was  missed  from  her  usual  seat  at  church,  and  be- 
fore I  left  the  neighborhood  I  heard,  with  a  feeling  of  satis- 
faction, that  she  had  quietly  breathed  her  last,  and  had  gone 
to  rejoin  those  she  loved,  in  that  world  where  sorrow  is  never 
known,  and  friends  are  never  parted. 


THE  BUND  PREACHER.* 

( From  The  Letters  of  the  British  Spy.) 
WILLIAM   WIRT. 

It  was  one  Sunday,  as  I  travelled  through  the  county  of 
Orange,  that  my  eye  was  caught  by  a  cluster  of  horses  tied 
near  a  ruinous  old  wooden  house  in  the  forest,  not  far  from  - 
the  roadside.  Having  frequently  seen  such  objects  before  in 
travelling  through  these  States,  I  had  no  difficulty  in  under- 
standing that  this  was  a  place  of  religious  worship. 

Devotion  alone  should  have  stopped  me  to  join  in  the 
duties  of  the  congregation;  but  I  must  confess  that  curiosity 
to  hear  the  preacher  of  such  a  wilderness  was  not  the  least  of 

*  James  Waddel,  "  the  blind  preacher,"  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1739,  and  died  in 
Louisa  county,  Va.,  17th  Sept.,  1805.  lie  was  the  teacher  of  James  Madison.  Wirt's 
account  of  him  was  written  in  1803. 


The  Blind  Preacher.  205 

my  motives.  On  entering  I  was  struck  with  his  preternatural 
appearance.  He  was  a  tall  and  very  spare  old  man ;  his  head, 
which  was  covered  with  a  white  linen  cap,  his  shrivelled 
hands,  and  his  voice,  were  all  shaking  under  the  influence 
of  a  palsy,  and  a  few  moments  ascertained  to  me  that  he  was 
perfectly  l)lind. 

The  first  emotions  which  touched  my  breast  were  those  of 
mingled  pity  and  veneration.  But,  ah!  .  .  .  how  soon  were 
all  my  feelings  changed!  The  lips  of  Plato  were  never  more 
worthy  of  a  prognostic  swarm  of  bees  than  were  the  lips  of 
this  holy  man.  It  was  a  day  of  the  administration  of  the 
sacrament,  and  his  subject,  of  course,  was  the  passion  of  our 
Saviour.  I  had  heard  the  subject  handled  a  thousand  times: 
I  had  thought  it  exhausted  long  ago.  Little  did  I  suppose 
that  in  the  wild  woods  of  America  I  was  to  meet  with  a  man 
whose  eloquence  would  give  to  this  topic  a  new  and  more 
sublime  pathos  than  I  had  ever  before  witnessed. 

As  he  descended  from  the  pulpit  to  distribute  the  mystic 
symbols,  there  was  a  peculiar,  a  more  than  human,  solemnity 
in  his  air  and  manner  which  made  my  blood  run  cold  and 
my  whole  frame  shiver. 

He  then  drew  a  picture  of  the  sufferings  of  our  Saviour — 
his  trial  before  Pilate,  his  ascent  up  Calvary,  his  crucifixion, 
and  his  death.  I  knew  the  whole  history,  but  never  until 
then  had  I  heard  the  circumstances  so  selected,  so  arranged, 
so  colored.  It  was  all  new,  and  I  seemed  to  have  heard  it  for 
the  first  time  in  my  life.  His  enunciation  was  so  deliberate 
that  his  voice  trembled  on  every  syllable,  and  every  heart  in 
the  assembly  trembled  in  unison. 

His  peculiar  phrases  had  that  force  of  description  that  the 
original  scene  appeared  to  be,  at  that  moment,  acting  l)cfore 
our  eyes.     We  saw  the  very  faces  of  the  Jews — the  staring, 


206  A  New  English  Grammar. 

frightful  distortions  of  malice  and  rage.  We  saw  the  buffet; 
my  soul  kindled  with  a  flame  of  indignation  and  my  hands 
were  involuntarily  and  convulsively  clenched. 

But  when  he  came  to  touch  on  the  patience,  the  forgiving 
meekness,  of  our  Saviour;  when  he  drew,  to  the  life,  his  blessed 
eyes  streaming  in  tears  to  heaven,  his  voice  breathing  to  God 
a  soft  and  gentle  prayer  of  his  pardon  on  his  enemies,  "  Father, 
forgive  them,  for"  they  know  not  what  they  do,"  the  voice  of 
the  preacher,  which  had  all  along  faltered,  grew  fainter  and 
fainter,  until,  his  utterance  being  entirely  obstructed  by  the 
force  of  his  feelings,  he  raised  his  handkerchief  to  his  eyes  and 
burst  into  a  loud  and  irrepressible  flood  of  grief.  The  effect  is 
inconceivable.  The  whole  house  resounded  with  the  mingled 
groans  and  sobs  and  shrieks  of  the  congregation. 

It  was  some  time  before  the  tumult  had  subsided  so  far  as 
to  permit  him  to  proceed.  Indeed,  judging  by  the  usual,  but 
fallacious,  standard  of  my  own  weakness,  I  began  to  be  very 
uneasy  for  the  situation  of  the  preacher.  For  I  could  not 
conceive  how  he  would  be  able  to  let  his  audience  down  from 
the  height  to  which  he  had  wound  them,  without  impairing 
the  solemnity  and  dignity  of  his  subject  or  perhaps  shocking 
them  by  the  abruptness  of  the  fall.  But  no;  the  descent  was 
as  beautiful  and  sublime  as  the  elevation  had  been  rapid  and 
enthusiastic. 

The  first  sentence  with  which  he  broke  the  awful  silence 
was  a  quotation  from  Rousseau :  "  Socrates  died  like  a  phi- 
losopher, but  Jesus  Christ  like  a  God." 

I  despair  of  giving  you  any  idea  of  the  effect  produced  by 
this  short  sentence,  unless  you  could  perfectly  conceive  the 
whole  manner  of  the  man  as  well  as  the  peculiar  crisis  in  the 
discourse.  Never  before  did  I  completely  understand  what 
Demosthenes  meant  by  laying  such  stress  on  delivery.     You 


The  Blind  Preacher.  207 

are  to  bring  before  you  the  venerable  figure  of  the  preacher; 
his  bhndness,  constantly  recalling  to  your  recollection  old 
Homer,  Ossian,  and  Milton,  and  associating  with  his  per- 
formance the  melancholy  grandeur  of  their  geniuses;  you 
are  to  imagine  that  you  hear  his  slow,  solemn,  well-accented 
enunciation,  and  his  voice  of  affecting,  trembling  melody; 
you  are  to  remember  the  pitch  of  passion  and  enthusiasm  to 
which  the  congregation  were  raised;  and  then  the  few  min- 
utes of  portentious,  death-like  silence  which  reigned  through- 
out the  house;  the  preacher,  removing  his  white  handker- 
chief from  his  aged  face,  even  yet  wet  from  the  recent  tor- 
rent of  his  tears,  and  slowly  stretching  forth  the  palsied  hand 
which  holds  it,  begins  the  sentence,  "Socrates  died  like -a 
philosopher" — then  pausing,  raising  his  other  hand,  pressing 
them  both,  clasped  together,  with  warmth  and  energy  to  his 
breast,  lifting  his  "sightless  balls"  to  heaven,  and  pouring  his 
whole  soul  into  his  tremulous  voice,  "but  Jesus  Christ — like 
a  God!"  If  he  had  been  indeed  and  in  truth  an  an^el  of 
light,  the  effect  could  scarcely  have  been  more  divine. 

Whatever  I  had  been  able  to  conceive  of  the  sublimity  of 
Massillon  or  the  force  of  Bourdaloue  had  fallen  far  short  of  the 
power  which  I  felt  from  the  delivery  of  this  simple  sentence. 
The  blood  which  just  before  had  rushed  in  a  hurricane  upon 
my  brain,  and,  in  the  violence  and  agony  of  my  feelings,  had 
held  my  whole  system  in  suspense,  now  ran  back  into  my 
heart  with  a  sensation  which  I  cannot  describe — a  kind  of 
shuddering,  delicious  horror.  The  paroxysms  of  blended 
pity  and  indignation  to  which  I  had  been  transported  sub- 
sided into  the  deepest  self-abasement,  humility,  and  adora- 
tion. I  had  just  been  lacerated  and  dissolved  by  sympathy 
for  our  Saviour  as  a  fellow-creature,  but  now,  with  fear  and 
trembling,  I  adored  him  as — "a  God." 


208  A  New  English  Grammar. 

THE  FOUR  CRAFTS-MEN. 


"  Dear  children,"  said  a  poor  man  to  his  four  sons,  "  I 
have  nothing  to  give  you  ;  you  must  go  out  into  the  wide 
world  and  try  your  luck.  Begin  by  learning  some  craft  or 
another,  and  see  how  you  can  get  on."  So  the  four  brothers 
took  their  walking-sticks  in  their  hands,  and  their  little 
bundles  on  their  shoulders,  and  after  bidding  their  father 
good-bye,  went  all  out  at  the  gate  together.  When  they  had 
got  on  some  way  they  came  to  four  cross-ways,  each  leading 
to  a  different  country.  Then  the  eldest  said,  "  Here  we  must 
part;  but  this  day  four  years  we  will  come  back  to  this  spot; 
and  in  the  meantime  each  must  try  what  he  can  do  for  him- 
self." 

So  each  brother  went  his  way;  and  as  the  eldest  was  has- 
tening on  a  man  met  him,  and  asked  him  where  he  was 
going,  and  what  he  wanted.  "  I  am  going  to  try  my  luck  in 
the  world,  and  should  like  to  begin  by  learning  some  art  or 
trade,"  answered  he.  "Then,"  said  the  man,  "go  with  me, 
and  I  will  teach  you  how  to  become  the  cunningest  thief 
that  ever  was."  "No,"  said  the  other,  "that  is  not  an  honest 
calling,  and  what  can  one  look  to  earn  by  it  in  the  end  but 
the  gallows?  " 

"Oh!"  said  the  man,  "you  need  not  fear  the  gallows;  for 
I  will  only  teach  you  to  steal  what  will  be  fair  game:  I 
meddle  with  nothing  but  what  no  one  else  can  get  or  care 
anything  about,  and  where  no  one  can  find  you  out."  So 
the  young  man  agreed  to  follow  his  trade,  and  he  soon 
showed  himself  so  clever,  that  nothing  could  escape  him 
that  he  had  once  set  his  mind  upon. 

The  second  brother  also  met  a  man,  who,  when  he  found 
out  what  he  was  setting  out  upon,  asked  him  what  craft  he 


The  Four  Crafts-Men.  209 

meant  to  follow.  "  I  do  not  know  yet,"  said  he.  "  Then  come 
with  me,  and  be  a  star-gazer.  It  is  a  noble  art,  for  nothing 
can  be  hidden  from  you,  when  once  you  understand  the 
stars."  The  plan  pleased  him  much,  and  he  soon  became 
such  a  skillful  star-gazer,  that  when  he  had  served  out  his 
time,  and  wanted  to  leave  his  master,  he  gave  him  a  glass, 
and  said,  "  With  this  you  can  see  all  that  is  passing  in  the 
sky  and  on  the  earth,  and  nothing  can  be  hidden  from  you." 

The  third  brother  met  a  huntsman,  who  took  him  with 
him,  and  taught  him  so  well  all  that  belonged  to  hunting, 
that  he  became  very  clever  in  the  craft  of  the  woods;  and 
when  he  left  his  master  he  gave  him  a  bow,  and  said,  "  What- 
ever you  shoot  at  with  this  bow  you  will  be  sure  to  hit." 

The  youngest  brother  likewise  met  a  man  who  asked  him 
what  he  wished  to  do.  "Would  not  you  like,"  said  he,  "  to 
be  a  tailor?"  "Oh,  no!"  said  the  young  man;  "sitting 
cross-legged  from  morning  to  night,  working  backwards  and 
forwards  with  a  needle  and  goose,  will  never  suit  me."  "Oh!" 
answered  the  man,  "that  is  not  my  sort  of  tailoring;  come 
with  me,  and  you  will  learn  quite  another  kind  of  craft  from 
that."  Not  knowing  what  better  to  do,  he  came  into  the 
plan,  and  learned  tailoring  from  the  beginning ;  and  when 
he  left  his  master,  he  gave  him  a  needle,  and  said,  you  can 
sew  anything  with  this,  be  it  as  soft  as  an  egg  or  as  hard  as 
steel ;  and  the  joint  will  be  so  fine  that  no  seam  will  be  seen. 

After  the  space  of  four  years,  at  the  time  agreed  upon,  the 
four  brothers  met  at  the  four  cross-roads ;  and  having  wel- 
comed each  other,  set  off  towards  their  father's  home,  where 
they  told  him  all  that  had  happened  to  them,  and  how  each 
had  learned  some  craft. 

Then,  one  day,  as  they  were  sitting  before  the  house  under 
a  very  high  tree,  the  father  said,  "  I  should  like  to  try  what 
14 


210  A  New  English  Grammar. 

each  of  you  can  do  in  this  way."  So  he  looked  up,  and 
said  to  the  second  son,  "  At  the  top  of  this  tree  there  is  a 
chaffinch's  nest ;  tell  me  how  many  eggs  there  are  in  it." 
The  star-gazer  took  his  glass,  looked  up,  and  said,  "Five." 
"  Now,"  said  the  father  to  the  eldest  son,  "  take  away  the 
eggs  without  letting  the  bird  that  is  sitting  upon  them  and 
hatching  them  know  anything  of  what  you  are  doing."  So 
the  cunning  thief  climbed  up  the  tree,  and  brought  away  to 
his  father  the  five  eggs  from  under  the  bird ;  and  it  never 
saw  or  felt  what  he  was  doing,  but  kept  sitting  on  at  its  ease. 
Then  the  father  took  the  eggs,  and  put  one  on  each  corner  of 
the  table,  and  the  fifth  in  the  middle  ;  and  said  to  the  hunts- 
man, "  Cut  all  the  eggs  in  two  pieces  at  one  shot."  The 
huntsman  took  up  his  bow,  and  at  one  shot  struck  all  the 
five  eggs  as  his  father  wished.  "Now  comes  your  turn,"  said 
he  to  the  young  tailor;  "  sew  the  eggs  and  the  young  birds 
in  them  together  again,  so  neatly  that  the  shot  shall  have 
done  them  no  harm."  Then  the  tailor  took  his  needle,  and 
sewed  the  eggs  as  he  was  told ;  and  when  he  had  done,  the 
thief  was  sent  to  take  them  back  to  the  nest,  and  put  them 
under  the  bird  without  its  knowing  it.  Then  she  went  on 
sitting,  and  hatched  them ;  and  in  a  few  days  they  crawled 
out,  and  had  only  a  little  red  streak  across  their  necks,  where 
the  tailor  had  sewn  them  together. 

"  Well  done,  sons  !  "  said  the  old  man:  "  you  have  made 
good  use  of  your  time,  and  learnt  something  worth  the 
knowing;  but  I  am  sure  I  do  not  know  which  ought  to  have 
the  prize.  Oh !  that  a  time  might  soon  come  for  you  to 
turn  your  skill  to  some  account!  " 

Not  long  after  this  there  was  a  great  bustle  in  the  country; 
for  the  king's  daughter  had  been  carried  off  by  a  mighty 
dragon,  and  the  king  mourned  over  his  loss  day  and  night, 


The  Four  Crafts-Men.  211 

and  made  it  known  that  whoever  brought  her  back  to  him 
should  have  her  for  a  wife.  Then  the  four  brothers  said  to 
each  other,  "  Here  is  a  chance  for  us;  let  us  try  what  we  can 
do."  And  they  agreed  to  see  whether  they  could  not  set  the 
princess  free.  "I  will  soon  find  out  where  she  is,  however," 
said  the  star-gazer,  as  he  looked  through  his  glass:  and  he 
soon  cried  out,  "I  see  her  afar  off,  sitting  upon  a  rock  in  the 
sea;  and  I  can  spy  the  dragon  close  by,  guarding  her." 
Then  he  Avent  to  the  king,  and  asked  for  a  ship  for  himself 
and  his  brothers ;  and  they  sailed  together  over  the  sea,  till 
they  came  to  the  right  place.  There  they  found  the  princess 
sitting,  as  the  star-gazer  had  said,  on  the  rock ;  and  the 
dragon  was  lying  asleep,  with  his  head  upon  her  lap.  "  I 
dare  not  shoot  at  him,"  said  the  huntsman,  "  for  I  should 
kill  the  beautiful  young  lady  also."  "  Then  I  will  try  my 
skill,"  said  the  thief;  and  went  and  stole  her  away  from  un- 
der the  dragon,  so  quietly  and  gently  that  the  beast  did  not 
know  it,  but  went  on  snoring. 

Then  away  they  hastened  with  her  full  of  joy  in  their 
boat  towards  the  ship;  but  soon  came  the  dragon  roaring 
behind  them  through  the  air;  for  he  awoke  and  missed  the 
princess.  But  when  he  got  over  the  boat,  and  wanted  to 
pounce  upon  them  and  carry  off  the  princess,  the  huntsman 
took  up  his  bow  and  shot  him  straight  through  the  heart,  so 
that  he  fell  down  dead.  They  were  still  not  safe;  for  he 
was  such  a  great  beast  that  in  his  fall  he  overset  the  boat,  and 
they  had  to  swim  in  the  open  sea  upon  a  few  planks.  So  the 
tailor  took  his  needle,  and  with  a  few  large  stitches  put  some 
of  the  planks  together;  and  he  sat  down  upon  these,  and 
sailed  about  and  gathered  up  all  the  pieces  of  the  boat;  and 
then  tacked  them  together  so  quickly  that  the  boat  was  soon 
ready,  and  they  then  reached  the  ship  and  got  home  safe. 


212  A  New  English  Grammar. 

When  they  had  brought  home  the  princess  to  her  father, 
there  was  great  rejoicing ;  and  he  said  to  the  four  brothers, 
"  One  of  you  shall  marry  her,  but  you  must  settle  amongst 
yourselves  which  it  is  to  be."  Then  there  arose  a  quarrel 
between  them;  and  the  star-gazer  said,  "If  I  had  not  found 
the  princess  out,  all  your  skill  would  have  been  of  no  use ; 
therefore  she  ought  to  be  mine."  "  Your  seeing  her  would 
have  been  of  no  use,"  said  the  thief,  "  if  I  had  not  taken  her 
away  from  the  dragon ;  therefore  she  ought  to  be  mine." 
"No,  she  is  mine,"  said  the  huntsman;  "for  if  I  had  not 
killed  the  dragon,  he  would,  after  all,  have  torn  you  and  the 
princess  into  pieces."  "  And  if  I  had  not  sewn  the  boat  to- 
gether again,"  said  the  tailor,  "  you  would  all  have  been 
drowned ;  therefore  she  is  mine. "  Then  the  king  put  in  a 
word,  and  said,  "  Each  of  you  is  right ;  and  as  all  can  not 
have  the  young  lady,  the  best  way  is  for  neither  of  you  to 
have  her  :  for  the  truth  is,  there  is  somebody  she  likes  a  great 
deal  better.  But  to  make  up  for  your  loss,  I  will  give  each 
of  you,  as  a  reward  for  his  skill,  half  a  kingdom."  So  the 
brothers  agreed  that  this  plan  would  be  much  better  than 
either  quarreling  or  marrying  a  lady  who  had  no  mind  to 
have  them.  And  the  king  then  gave  to  each  half  a  king- 
dom, as  he  had  said  ;  and  they  lived  very  happily  the  rest 
of  their  days,  and  took  good  care  of  their  father;  and  some- 
body took  better  care  of  the  young  lady,  than  to  let  either 
the  dragon  or  one  of  the  Craftsmen  have  her  again. 


A  Tale  of  Two  Brothers.  213 

A  TALE  OF  TWO  BROTHERS. 

Abram  and  Zimri  owned  a  field  together — 

A  level  field  hid  in  a  happy  vale. 

They  plowed  it  with  one  plow,  and  in  the  spring 

Sowed,  walking  side  by  side,  the  fruitful  seed. 

In  harvest,  when  the  glad  earth  smiles  with  grain, 

Each  carried  to  his  home  one  half  the  sheaves, 

And  stored  them  with  much  labor  in  his  barns. 

Now,  Abram  had  a  wife  and  seven  sons ; 

But  Zimri  dw'elt  alone  w'ithin  his  house. 

One  night,  before  the  sheaves  were  gathered  in, 

As  Zimri  lay  upon  his  lonely  bed. 

And  counted  in  his  mind  his  little  gains, 

He  thought  upon  his  brother  Abram's  lot, 

And  said,  "  I  dwell  alone  within  my  house, 

But  Abram  hath  a  wife  and  seven  sons; 

And  yet  we  share  the  harvest  sheaves  alike. 

He  surely  needeth  more  for  life  than  I: 

I  will  arise,  and  gird  myself,  and  go 

Down  to  the  field,  and  add  to  his  from  mine." 

So  he  arose,  and  girded  up  his  loins. 

And  went  out  softly  to  the  level  field. 

The  moon  shone  out  from  dusky  bars  of  clouds, 

The  trees  stood  black  against  the  cold  blue  sky, 

The  branches  waved  and  whispered  in  the  wind. 

So  Zimri,  guided  by  the  shifting  light, 

Went  down  the  mountain-path,  and  found  the  field. 

Took  from  his  store  of  sheaves  a  generous  third, 

And  bore  them  gladly  to  his  brother's  heap; 

And  then  went  back  to  sleep,  and  happy  dreams. 

Now,  that  same  night,  as  Abram  lay  in  bed, 
Thinking  upon  his  blissful  state  in  life, 
He  thought  upon  his  brother  Zimri's  lot, 
And  said,  "He  dwells  within  his  house  alone; 
Hegoeth  forth  to  toil  with  few  to  lielp; 


214  A  New  English  Grammar. 

He  goeth  home  at  night  to  a  cold  house, 

And  hath  few  other  friends  but  me  and  mine  " 

(For  these  two  tilled  the  happy  vale  alone): 

"  While  I,  whom  Heaven  hath  very  greatly  blessed, 

Dwell  happy  with  my  wife  and  seven  sons, 

Who  aid  me  in  my  toil,  and  make  it  light. 

And  yet  we  share  the  harvest  sheaves  alike. 

This  surely  is  not  pleasing  unto  God: 

I  will  arise,  and  gird  myself,  and  go 

Out  to  the  field,  and  borrow  from  my  store, 

And  add  unto  my  brother  Zimri's  pile." 

So  he  arose,  and  girded  up  his  loins, 

And  went  down  softly  to  the  level  field. 

The  moon  shone  out  from  silver  bars  of  clouds, 

The  trees  stood  black  against  the  starry  sky. 

The  dark  leaves  waved  and  whispered  in  the  breeze. 

So  Abram,  guided  by  the  doubtful  light, 

Passed  down  the  mountain-path,  and  found  the  field, 

Took  from  his  store  of  sheaves  .a  generous  third 

And  added  them  unto  his  brother's  heap; 

Then  he  went  back  to  sleep,  and  happy  dreams 

So  the  next  morning  with  the  early  sun 
The  brothers  rose,  and  went  out  to  their  toil. 
And  when  they  came  to  see  the  heavy  sheaves, 
Each  wondered  in  his  heart  to  find  his  heap. 
Though  he  had  given  a  third,  was  still  the  same. 

Now,  the  next  night  went  Zimri  to  the  field, 
Took  from  his  store  of  sheaves  a  generous  share, 
And  placed  them  on  his  brother  Abram's  heap. 
And  then  lay  down  behind  his  pile  to  watch. 
The  moon  looked  out  from  bars  of  silvery  cloud, 
The  cedars  stood  up  black  against  the  sky. 
The  olive-branches  whispered  in  the  wind. 

Then  Abram  came  down  softly  from  his  home. 
And,  looking  to  the  right  and  left,  went  on, 
Took  from  his  ample  store  a  generous  third. 


The  Chameleon.  215 

And  laid  it  on  his  brother  Zimri's  pile. 

Then  Zimri  rose,  and  caught  him  in  his  arms, 

And  wept  upon  his  neck,  and  kissed  his  cheek: 

And  Abram  saw  the  whole,  and  could  not  speak ; 

Neither  could  Zimri.     So  they  walked  along 

Back  to  their  homes,  and  thanked  their  God  in  prayer 

That  he  had  bound  them  in  such  loving  bands. 


THE  CHAMELEON. 

JAMES    MERRICK 

Oft  has  it  been  my  lot  to  mark 
A  proud,  conceited,  talking  spark. 
Returning  from  his  finish'd  tour, 
Grown  ten  times  perter  than  before. 
Whatever  word  you  chance  to  drop, 
The  travell'd  fool  your  mouth  will  stop — 
"  Sir,  if  my  judgment  you'll  allow — 
I've  seen  —  and  sure  1  ought  to  know." 
So  begs  you'd  pay  a  due  submission. 
And  acquiesce  in  his  decision. 

Two  travellers  of  such  a  cast. 
As  o'er  Arabia's  wilds  they  pass'd. 
And  on  their  way,  in  friendly  ctiat. 
Now  talk'd  of  this,  and  then  of  that ; 
Discours'd  a  while  'raongst  other  matter. 
Of  the  Chameleon's  form  and  nature. 
"A  stranger  animal,"  cries  one, 
"  Sure  never  liv'd  beneath  the  sun ! 
A  lizzard's  body,  lean  and  long, 
A  fish's  head,  a  serpent's  tongue. 
Its  foot  with  triple  claws  disjoin'd. 
And  what  a  length  of  tail  behind! 
How  slow  its  pace!  and  tlien  it's  hue — 
Who  ever  saw  so  fine  a  bluel "' 

"  Hold  there,"  the  other  quick  replies, 
"  'Tis  green  :  I  saw  it  with  these  eyes, 


216  A  New  English  Grammar. 

As  late  with  open  mouth  it  lay, 
And  warm'd  it  in  the  sunny  ray: 
Stretch'd  at  its  ease  the  beast  I  view'd, 
And  saw  it  eat  the  air  for  food." 

"I've  seen  it,  sir,  as  well  as  you, 
And  must  again  affirm  it  blue. 
At  leisure  I  the  beast  survey'd. 
Extended  in  the  cooling  shade." 

"  '  Tis  green !  '  tis  green,  sir,  I  assure  ye  " — 
"Green!"  cries  the  other,  in  a  fury — 
"Why,  sir,  d'ye  think  I've  lost  my  eyes?" 
"  'Twere  no  great  loss,"  the  friend  replies; 
"  For  if  they  always  serve  you  thus, 
You'll  find  them  but  of  little  use." 

So  high  at  last  the  contest  rose. 
From  words  they  almost  came  to  blows: 
When  luckily  came  by  a  third ; 
To  him  the  question  they  referr'd. 
And  begg'd  he'd  tell  them,  if  he  knew. 
Whether  the  thing  was  green  or  blue. 

"  Sirs,"'  cries  the  umpire,  "cease  your  pother, 
The  creature's  —  neither  one  nor  t'other. 
I  caught  the  animal  last  night. 
And  view'd  it  o'er  by  candle  light : 
I  mark'd  it  well — 'twas  black  as  jet  — 
You  stare  —  but,  sirs,  I've  got  it  yet, 
Andean  produce  it." — "Pray,  sir,  do; 
I'll  lay  my  life  the  thing  is  blue." — 
"And  I'll  be  sworn,  that  when  you've  seen 
The  reptile,  you'll  pronounce  it  green." — 

"  Well  then,  at  once  to  end  the  doubt;" 
Replies  the  man,  "  I'll  turn  him  out; 
And  when  before  your  eyes  I've  set  him. 
If  >ou  don't  find  him  black,  I'll  eat  him." 
He  said — then  full  before  their  sight 
Produc'd  the  beast— and  lo!  — 'twas  white. 


Await  the  Issue.  217 

AWAIT  THE  ISSUE. 

THOMAS  CARLYLE. 

In  this,  God's  world,  with  its  wild  whirling  eddies  and 
mad  foam  oceans,  where  men  and  nations  perish  as  if 
without  law,  and  judgment  for  an  unjust  thing  is  sternly 
delayed,  dost  thou  think  that  there  is,  therefore,  no  justice? 
It  is  what  the  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart.  It  is  what  the 
wise,  in  all  times  were  wise  because  they  denied,  and  knew 
forever  not  to  be.  I  tell  thee  again  there  is  nothing  else  but 
justice.  One  strong  thing  I  find  here  below:  the  just  thing, 
the  true  thing.  My  friend,  if  thou  hadst  all  the  artillery  of 
Woolwich  trundling  at  thy  back  in  support  of  an  unjust 
thing,  and  infinite  bonfires,  visibly  waiting  ahead  of  thee,  to 
blaze  centuries  long  for  thy  victory  on  behalf  of  it,  I  would 
advise  thee  to  call  halt,  to  fling  down  thy  baton  and  say,  "In 
God's  name  No!*'  Thy  "success?"  Poor  devil,  what  will 
thy  success  amount  to?  If  the  thing  is  unjust,  thou  hast  not 
succeeded,  no,  not  though  bonfires  blazed  from  north  to 
south,  and  bells  rang,  and  editors  wrote  leading  articles,  and 
the  just  thing  lay  trampled  out  of  sight,  to  all  mortal  eyes 
an  abolished  and  annihilated  thing.  Success?  In  a  few  years 
thou  wilt  be  dead  and  dark — all  cold,  eyeless,  deaf;  no  blaze 
of  bonfires,  ding-dong  of  bells,  or  leading  articles  visible  or 
audible  to  thee  again  at  all  forever.  What  kind  of  success  is 
that?  It  is  true  all  goes  by  approximation  in  this  world; 
with  any  not  insupportable  approximation  we  must  be  pa- 
tient. There  is  a  noble  conservatism  as  well  as  an  ignoble. 
Would  to  Heaven,  for  the  sake  of  conservatism  itself,  the 
noble  alone  were  left,  and  the  ignoble,  by  some  kind  severe 
hand,  were  ruthlessly  lopped  away,  forbidden  any  more  to 
show  itself!    For  it  is  the  right  and  noble  alone  that  will 


218  A  New  E^nglish  Grammar. 

have  victory  in  this  struggle;  the  rest  is  wholly  an  obstruc- 
tion, a  postponement  and  fearful  imperilment  of  the  victory. 
Toward  an  eternal  centre  of  right  and  nobleness,  and  of  that 
only^  is  all  this  confusion  tending.  We  already  know  whither 
it  is  tending;  what  will  have  victory,  what  will  have  none! 
The  Heaviest  will  reach  the  centre.  The  Heaviest,  sinking 
through  complex  fluctuating  media  and  vortices,  has  its  de- 
flections, its  obstructions,  nay,  at  times  its  resiliences,  its  re- 
boundings;  whereupon  some  blockhead  shall  be  heard  jubi- 
lating: "See,  your  Heaviest  ascends!"  but  at  all  moments 
it  is  moving  centreward,  fast  as  is  convenient  for  it;  sinking, 
sinking;  and  by  laws  older  than  the  world,  old  as  the  Maker's 
first  plan  of  the  world,  it  has  to  arrive  there. 

Await  the  issue.  In  all  battles,  if  you  await  the  issue,  each 
fighter  has  prospered  according  to  his  right.  His  right  and 
his  might,  at  the  close  of  the  account,  were  one  and  the 
same.  He  has  fought  with  all  his  might,  and  in  exact  pro- 
portion to  all  his  right,  he  has  prevailed.  His  very  death  is 
no  victory  over  him.  He  dies  indeed;  but  his  work  lives, 
very  truly  lives.  A  heroic  Wallace,  quartered  on  the  scaffold, 
cannot  hinder  that  his  Scotland  become,  one  day,  a  part  of 
England;  but  he  does  hinder  that  it  become,  on  tyrannous, 
unfair  terms,  a  part  of  it;  commands  still,  as  with  a  god's 
voice,  from  his  Valhalla  and  Temple  of  the  Brave,  that  there 
be  a  just,  real  union,  as  of  brother  and  brother,  not  a  false 
and  merely  semblant  one,  as  of  slave  and  master.  If  the 
union  with  England  be  in  fact  one  of  Scotland's  chief  bless- 
ings, we  thank  Wallace  withal  that  it  was  not  the  chief 
curse.  Scotland  is  not  Ireland;  no,  because  brave  men  rose 
there  and  said,  "Behold,  ye  must  not  tread  us  down  like 
slaves;  and  ye  shall  not,  and  cannot !"  Fight  on,  thou  brave 
true  heart  and  falter  not,  through  dark  fortune  and  through 


Await  the  Issue.  219 

bright.  The  cause  thou  fightest  for,  so  far  as  it  is  true,  no 
farther,  yet  precisely  so  far,  is  very  sure  of  victory.  The  false- 
hood alone  of  it  will  be  conquered,  will  be  abolished,  as  it 
ought  to  be;  but  the  truth  of  it  is  part  of  Nature's  own  laws, 
cooperates  with  the  world's  eternal  tendencies,  and  cannot 
be  conquered. 


Appendix  A. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB, 

"BE." 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Present  Tense. 

Past  Tense. 

Perfect  Participle. 

be,  or  am 

was 
INDICATIVE  MODE. 

been 

Singular. 

Present  Tense. 

Plural. 

am 

are 

art 

are 

is 
Singular. 

Past  Tense. 

are 
Plural, 

was 

were 

wast  (wert) 

were 

was 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

were 

Singular. 

Present  Tense. 

Plural, 

be 

be 

be 

be 

be 

Singular. 

Past  Tense. 

be 
Plural, 

were 

were 

wert,  were 

were 

were 

were 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

be 

Infinitives. 

be,  or  to  be 

Note. — For  the  future  tenses,  use  shall  with 
vdll  with  the  second  and  third  to  denote  simple 
For  the  perfect  tenses,  use  proper  form  of  has 
feet  participle  of  the  verb. 


Participles. 
being,  been 

the  first  person  and 
futurity.  (Seep.  141) 
or  have  with  the  per- 


Appendix. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB,  "SEE." 

Active  Voice. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


221 


Present  Tense. 

Past  Tense. 

Perfect  Participle. 

See 

saw 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

seen 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.  I  see 

1.  We  see 

2.  Thou  seest 

2.  You  see 

3.  He  sees 

Past  Tense. 

3.  They  see 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.  I  saw 

1.  We  saw 

2.  Thou  sawest 

2.  You  saw 

3.  He  saw 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense. 

3.  They  saw 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.  If  I  see 

1.  If  we  see 

2.  If  thou  see 

2.  If  you  see 

3.  If  he  see 

Past  Tense. 

3.  If  they  see 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.  If  I  saw 

1.  If  we  saw 

2.  If  thou  saw 

2.  If  you  saw 

3.  If  he  saw 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

See 

3.  If  they  saw 

Infinitives. 

Participle. 

see,  to  see 

seeing 

222 


A  New  English  Grammar. 


Singular. 

1.  I  am  seen 

2.  Thou  art  seen 

3.  He  is  seen 

Singular. 

1.  I  was  seen 

2.  Thou  wast  seen 

3.  He  was  seen 


Passive  Voice. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 


Past  Tense. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 


Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  be  seen. 

2.  If  thou  be  seen 

3.  If  he  be  seen 

Singular. 

1.  If  I  were  seen 

2.  If  thou  wert  seen 

3.  If  he  were  seen 


Past  Tense. 


IMPERATIVE  MODE. 


t 


Singular. 
Be  (thou)  seen 

Infinitive. 
To  be  seen 


Plural. 

1.  We  are  seen 

2.  You  are  seen 

3.  They  are  seen 

Plural. 

1.  We  were  seen 

2.  You  were  seen 

3.  They  were  seen 


Plural. 

1.  If  we  be  seen 

2.  If  you  be  seen 

3.  If  they  be  seen 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  were  seen 

2.  If  you  were  seen 

3.  If  they  were  seen 


Plural. 

Be  (ye  or  you) seen 

Participles. 
Being  seen,  Seen 


Note. — For  future  and  perfect  tenses,  see  note  at  close  of  the  con- 
jugation of  the  verb,  be. 


INDEX. 


Thi'  ri'^rences  are  to  pages. 


Abridged  compound  sentence, 
7n,  82. 

Absolute  construction  of  noun, 
68. 

Abstract  nouns,  108. 

A  criticism,  23. 

Active  voice,  150. 

Active  verbs,  classes,  151. 

Active  voice,  changed  to  passive, 
150. 

Addition,  78. 

Adjective,  125  ;  descriptive  and 
limTtTng,  126;  simple,  deriva- 
tive, and  compound,  126;  divi- 
sion into  classes,  126;  inflection 
of  adjectives,  127;  comparison, 
128;  predicate,  qualified  by  ad- 
verbs, 128;  use  of  adjective  as 
noun,  54. 

Adjective  clause,  76,  90. 

Adjective  phrase,  72. 

Adjective  modifier,  65. 

Adverb,  165;  division  into  classes, 
1()7;  simple,  derivative,  and 
compound,  167;  comparison, 
166. 


Adverbial  clause,  76,  96. 

Adverbial  modifier,  65. 

Adverbial  phrase,  72. 

Adverbial  objective  modifier,  65. 

Adversative  conjunctions,  78. 

Agreement,  43. 

Alternation,  78. 

Alternative  conjunctions,  78. 

Analysis  of  compound  sentence, 
82. 

An  inductive  subject,  36. 

Antecedent,  94,  120. 

Appendix  A,  220. 

Appositive  modifier,  65. 

Arrangement,  47.  dj^ 

Articles,  127.  ^ 

Art  side  of  grammar,  9. 

A  Tale  of  Two  Brothers,  213. 

Attributes,  59;  quality,  59;  action, 
59;  condition,  59;  relation,  59. 

Attributive  predicate,  67. 

Attributive  words  in  simple  sen- 
tence, 69. 

Attributive  words,  61. 

Auxiliary  verbs,  140. 

Await  the  Issue,  217. 


224 


A  New  English  Grammar. 


Cardinal  numerals,  127. 

Careful  work,  32. 

Case,  in  noun  and  pronoun,  113. 

Causal  conjunctions,  78. 

Causative  verbs,  140. 

Central  idea,  16,  20,  22. 

Characteristics  of  the  subject, 
12. 

Choose,  135. 

Classes  of  words,  35,  64. 

Clause,  75 ;  individual,  75 ;  co- 
ordinate, 75  ;  principal  or  inde- 
pendent, 75 ;  subordinate  or 
dependent,  76 ;  substantive,  76 ; 
attributive,  76  ;  adjective,  76  ; 
adverbial,  76. 

Close  of  first  circle,  31. 

Close  of  fourth  circle,  35. 

Close  of  second  circle,  33. 

Close  of  third  circle,  34. 

Cognate  verb,  140. 

Collective  nouns,  108. 

Combined  predicate,  66. 

Common  nouns,  108. 

Comparative  degree,  128. 

Comparison  of  adjectives,  127. 

Complex  sentences,  54,  85. 

Compound-complex  sentence,  82. 

Compound  relative  pronouns,  94. 

Compound  sentence,  53,  75. 

Conclusion,  78. 

Conditions  of  mastering  the  sub- 
ject, 35. 

Conditional  clause,  99. 

Conjunctive  adverb,  95  ;  simple, 
95 ;  compound,  97. 

Conjugation  of  verb,  156,  220. 

Conjunction,  178  ;  classes,  179. 


Coordinate  members  of  a  sen- 
tence, 78,  79. 

Copula,  44. 

Copulative  conjunctions,  78. 

Constructive  study  of  grammar, 
13. 

Content  and  extent,  7,  34. 

Contribution  of  subject  to  char- 
acter, 10. 

Declarative  sentence,  46. 

Declension,  of  noun  and  pronoun, 
120. 

Definite  article,  127. 

Definition  of  grammar,  41. 

Definitions  and  principles,  2,  27. 

Dependent  clause,  76. 

Descriptive  adjective  clause,  91. 

Descriptive  adjective  modifier, 
68. 

Direct  and  indirect  objective 
modifiers,  65. 

Direct  and  indirect  objects,  70. 

Distinguishing  mark  of  subject, 
40. 

Double  predicates,  172. 

Do,  134. 

Elements  of  judgment,  42. 

Emphatic  verb  phrases,  157. 

Exclamatory  sentence,  46. 

Extent,  7,  34. 

Explanatory  clause,  91. 

Expletive,  62. 

Facts  of  grammar,  13. 

Factitive  verb,  140. 

Feminine  gender,  109. 

First  person,  111. 

First  circle,  30,  41. 

Formal  work,  31. 


Index. 


225 


Form  and  feeling  words  in  sim- 
ple sentence,  70. 

Future -tense,  147. 

Gender  in  nouns,  108  ;  in  pro- 
nouns, 120. 

Grammar  a  logical  subject,  26. 

(Grammar  a  subject  in  itself,  12. 

How  know  central  idea  ?  21 . 

Introduction,  9. 

Introduction  to  second  part,  183. 

Imperative  mode,  146. 

Imperative  sentence,  46. 

Impersonal  verbs,  140. 

Indefinite  article,  127. 

Indicative  mode,  145. 

Indirect  objective  modifier,  65. 

Infinitive,  169. 

Inflection,  15(H,  220. 

Interjection,  62. 

Interrogative  pronouns,   120. 

Interrogative  sentence,  4(>. 

Intransitive  verb,  K!S. 

Inverted  order  of  sentence,  40. 

Irregtilar  verbs,  i:52,  1.33,  1:54. 

Irregularities  in  gender,  110. 

It  deal8  with  mind,  10. 

Judgment,  41. 

.ludgment,  nature  of,  17,  41. 

Laboratory  method,  6,  3(). 

Life  of  the  subject,  38. 

Limiting  adjective  clause,  01. 

Limiting  adjective  modifier,  68. 

Logical  order  of  topics,  22. 

Logic  and  psychology  in  gram- 
mar, 29. 

Main  idea,  32. 

Ma.sculine  gender,  109. 

Mastery  of  art,  9. 

15 


Members  of  compound  sentence, 
J8,  79. 

Method  of  study,  4. 

Model  adverbs,  167. 

Modifiers,  34 ;  substantive,  64  ; 
attributive,  64  ;  appositive,  64  ; 
possessive,  64  ;  direct  objective, 
()5  ;  indirect  objective,  65  ;  ad- 
verbial objective,  65  ;  adjective, 
65  ;  adverbial,  65  ;  outline,  65. 

^lore  immediate  purpose,  11. 

^Multiplicative  adjectives,  127. 

Natural  order,  40. 

Mode,  143. 

Nature  of  an  instrument,  28 ; 
How  studied,  28. 

Nature  of  the  work,  6. 

Neuter  gender,  109. 

New  conjugation,  220. 

Nominative  case,  114. 

Noun,  106;  classes,  108;  inflec- 
tion, 109;  construction,  68; 
properties,  108. 

Number,  112,  152. 

Numerals,  129. 

O  and  o-h,  51. 

(objective  modifiers,  65. 

Objective  case,  114. 

Object  of  thought,  58;  concrete, 
58 ;  abstract,  59. 

Old  conjugation,  220. 

Opposition.  78. 

Ordinate  numerals,  127. 

Organic  parts  of  sentence,  33. 

Organ izatitin  of  subject,  9. 

C)rganized  knowledge,  23. 

Outline  of  noun,  117,  118. 

Outline  of  sentence,  52. 


226 


A  New  English  Gammar. 


Outline  of  thought  material,  60. 

Parts   of    sentence,    17,   43,   34 ; 

Adapted  to  elements  of  thought, 

o4. 

Participles,  172. 

Parts  of  speech,  35,  106. 

Passive  voice,  150,  151. 

Passive  verbs,  classes,  151. 

Past  paiticiple,  222.. 

Past  perfect  tense,  148. 

Past  tense,  147. 

Perfect  tense,  147. 

Person,  111,  152. 

Personal  pronouns,  lUl,  120. 

Personified  objects,  110. 

Phrase,  71 ;  prepositional,  72  ;  in- 
finitive, 72;  participial,  72;  ver- 
bal, 72  ;  simple,  72  ;  complex, 
72  ;  compound,  72 ;  substan- 
tive, 72  ;  attributive,  72  ;  ad- 
jective, 72  ;  adverbial,  72 ; 
clausal,  171. 

Place  of  grammar  in  language 
group,  40. 

Plural  number,  112. 

Positive  degree  in  adjective  and 
adverb,  128,  106. 

Possessive  case,  114. 

Possessive  modifier,  ()4. 

Predicate  of  sentence,  (iO. 

Predicate  adjective,  (iU. 

Preface,  3. 

Preposition,  175;  uses,  176. 

Present  participle,  221. 

Present  tense,  147. 

Principal  clause,  75. 

Principal  parts  of  verbs,  132. 

Pronominal  adjectives,  126. 


Pronoun,  119;  classes,  119;  uses, 
68  ;  properties,  120.  '"' 

Proper  nouns,  108. 

Psychologists  and  logicians,  19. 

Punctuation,  102 ;  of  adverbial 
clause,  100  ;  of  adjective  clause, 
96. 

Punctuation  of  compound  sen- 
tence, 80. 

Punctuation  of  exclamatory  sen- 
tence, 51. 

Pure  subordinate  conjunction, 
100. 

Pure  verb,  132. 

Purpose,  4,  10. 

Quantitative  adjectives,  126. 

Quotation,  87  ;  uses,  87  ;  direct, 
88  ;  indirect,  88  ;  punctuation 
of  88,  89. 

Raise,  135.  ' 

Reflexive  verbs,  140. 

Regular  compound  sentence,  82. 

Related  to  other  subjects,  12. 

Relation,  59 ;  coordinate,  tK) ; 
subordinate,  00. 

Relation  words  in  the  simple  sen- 
tence, 69,  70.  _ 

Relative  pronouns,  94,  120. 

Relation  words,  61,  62. 

Resemblance  between  grammar 
and  the  sciences,  5,  36. 

Rise,  135. 

Rule  for  person  and  number  of 
verbs,  154,  155. 

Second  person.  111. 

Second  circle,  32. 

Sentence  an  instrument,  27,  43 ; 
adapted  to  thought,  29. 


Index. 


227 


Scheme  for  the  study  of  a  selec- 
tion, 194. 
Science  side  of  grammar,  '». 
Sentence,  41  ;  classes,  3:;,  45. 
Shall  and  tirill,Ul. 
Simple  sentence.  53.  07. 

Simple  sentence  with  compound 
element,  73,  82. 

Singular  number,  Hi,  152. 

Speak,  134. 

Spirit  of  investigation,  4. 

Students    must    deal    with    sen- 
tences, 26. 

Study  of  classes  of  sentences,  32. 

Study  of  the  class  whole,  30,  41. 

Subject-matter,  IB. 

Subject  not  arbitrary,  5. 

Subject  of  sentence,  44. 

Subjunctive  mode,  145. 

Subordinate  clause,  76.  85.  87,  90, 
96. 

Subordinate  conjunction,  100. 

Substantive  predicate,  67. 

Substantive  words  in  simple  sen- 
tence, 68. 

Substantive  words,  61 . 

Substantive  clause,  76,  85. 

Superlative  degree,  1 28. 

Tense,  146. 

Teacher  and  text  to  aid  pupil,  37- 

Test  for  definitions,  2:},  39. 

The  Blind  Preacher,  204. 

The  Chameleon,  215. 

The  Four  Crafts-Men,  208. 

The  Voyage,  187. 

The  Widow  and  Her  Son,  196. 

Third  person.  111. 

Third  circle,  33. 

Thought  material,  34,  55. 

Transitive  verb,  138. 


True  view,  24. 

Two  elements,  24  ;  form  and  con- 
tent, 25. 

Two  points  of  view,  15. 

Two  problems,  3. 

Two  views  of  a  subject,  14. 

Uncombined  predicate,  66. 

Unit  of  subject,  40. 

Unity,  31. 

Use  of  word  "circle,"  36. 

Uses  and  modifiers  of  adjective, 
128. 

Uses  of  infinitive,  171,  172. 

Uses  of  participle,  174. 

Uses  of  passive  voice,  151. 

Uses  of  tense  forms,  148. 

Value  of  organized  view  to 
teacher,  21. 

Value  of  purpose,  10. 

Verb,  131 ;  classes,  128 ;  proper- 
ties, 143,  146,  149,  152. 

Verbal  phrase,  72. 

Vocative,  62. 

Voice,  149. 

What  is  it  to  know  a  subject 
scientifically?  15. 

Whitney,  18. 

Why  do  grammarians  say  two 
parts?  18. 

Words,  (jl ;  substantive,  6J ;  noun, 
61  ;  pronoun,  61  ;  attributive, 
61  ;  adjective,  61  ;  adverb,  61  ; 
attributive  verb,  61  ;  relation 
word.  Hi  ;  conjunction,  62;  pre- 
position, 62  ;  pure  verb,  62  ;  in- 
terjection or  feeling  word,  62  ; 
form  word  or  expletive,  62 ; 
outline,  62. 

Writing,  134. 


liOS  ANGELiES,  CRli. 


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